Перевод: со всех языков на все языки

со всех языков на все языки

consisting of five months

  • 1 πεντάμηνος

    A five months old, Arist.HA 568a12 ; π. τέκνον, παιδία, five months' child(ren), ib. 585a19, Men.Epit. 576.
    2 consisting of five months,

    περίοδοι Plu.2.933e

     ; ὁ π. (sc. χρόνος) Hp.Epid.3.1.ιά.

    Greek-English dictionary (Αγγλικά Ελληνικά-λεξικό) > πεντάμηνος

  • 2 पञ्चन् _pañcan

    पञ्चन् num. a. (Always pl., nom. and acc. पञ्च) Five. (As the first member of comp. पञ्चन् drops its final न्). [cf. Gr. pente.]
    -Comp. -अंशः the fifth part, a fifth.
    -अग्निः 1 an aggregate of five sacred fires; i. e. (अन्वाहार्यपचन or दक्षिण, गार्हपत्य, आहवनीय, सभ्य, and आव- सथ्य).
    -2 a householder who maintains the five sacred fires; पञ्चाग्नयो धृतव्रताः Māl.1; Ms.3.185.
    -3 five mystic fires supposed to exist in the body; तेजो ह्यग्निस्तथा क्रोधश्चक्षुरूष्मा तथैव च । अग्निर्जरयते यच्च पञ्चाग्नेयाः शरीरिणः ॥ Mb.12.184.21.
    -4 one who is acquainted with the doctrine of these fires. ˚साधनम् four fires on four sides and the sun above the head. This is a form of penance.
    -अङ्ग a. five-membered, having five parts or divi- sions as in पञ्चाङ्गः प्रणामः (i. e. बाहुभ्यां चैव जानुभ्यां शिरसा वक्षसा दृशा); कृतपञ्चाङ्गविनिर्णयो नयः Ki.2.12. (see Malli. and Kāmandaka quoted by him); पञ्चाङ्गमभिनयमुपदिश्य M.1; चित्ताक्षिभ्रूहस्तपादैरङ्गैश्चेष्टादिसाम्यतः । पात्राद्यवस्थाकरणं पञ्चाङ्गे$भिनयो मतः ॥
    (-ङ्गः) 1 a tortoise or turtle.
    -2 a kind of horse with five spots in different parts of his body. (
    -ङ्गी) a bit for horses.
    -(ङ्गम्) 1 collection or aggregate of five parts.
    -2 five modes of devotion (silent prayer, oblations, libations, bathing idols and feeding Brāhmaṇas)
    -3 the five parts of a tree; त्वक्पत्रकुसुमं मूलफलमेकस्य शाखिनः । एकत्र मिलितं चैतत् पञ्चाङ्ग- मिति संज्ञितम् ॥
    -4 a calendar or almanac, so called be- cause it treats of five things:-- (तिथिर्वारश्च नक्षत्रं योगः करणमेव च); चतुरङ्गबलो राजा जगतीं वशमानयेत् । अहं पञ्चा- ङ्गबलवानाकाशं वशमानये ॥ Shbhāṣ. ˚गुप्तः a turtle. ˚पत्रम् a calendar. ˚विनिर्णयः the five rules are as follows; सहायाः साधनोपाया विभागो देशकालयोः । विनिपातप्रतीकारः सिद्धिः पञ्चाङ्ग- मिष्यते ॥ Kāmandak; cf. Ki.2.12. ˚शुद्धिः f. the propiti- ousness or favourable state of five important points; i. e. तिथि, वार, नक्षत्र, योग and करण (in astrology).
    -अङ्गिक a. five-membered.
    -अङ्गुल a. (
    -ला or
    -ली f.) measuring five fingers. (
    -लः) the castor-oil plant.
    -अ(आ)जम् the five products of the goat; cf. पञ्चगव्य.
    -अतिग a. liberated (मुक्त); सो$पि पञ्चातिगो$भवत् Mb. 12.59.9.
    -अप्सरस् n. N. of a lake, said to have been created by the sage Mandakarni; cf. R.13.38.
    -अमरा The five plants i. e. (Mar. भांग, दूर्वा, बेल, निर्गुडी and तुळस.
    -अमृत a. consisting of 5 ingredients.
    -(तम्) 1 the aggregate of five drugs; dry ginger, a species of Moonseed (Cocculus cordifolius, Mar. गुळवेल), Asparagus recemosus (Mar. शतावरी), Hypoxis brevifolia (Mar. मुसळी), गोक्षुरक (Mar. गोखरूं).
    -2 the collection of five sweet things used in worshipping deities; (दुग्धं च शर्करा चैव घृतं दधि तथा मधु).
    -3 the five elements; Māl.5.2.
    -अम्लम् the aggregate of five acid plants (the jujube, pomegranate, sorrel, spondias and citron).
    -अर्चिस् m. the planet Mercury.
    - अवयव a. five-membered (as a syllogism, the five members being, प्रतिज्ञा, हेतु, उदाहरण, उपनय and निगमन q. v.).
    -अवस्थः a corpse (so called because it is resolved into the five elements) cf. पञ्चत्व below.
    -अविकम् the five products of the sheep; cf. पञ्चगव्य.
    -अशीतिः f. eighty-five.
    -अहः a period of five days.
    - आतप a. doing penance with five fires. (i. e. with four fires and the sun); cf. R.13.41.
    -आत्मक a. consisting of five elements (as body).
    -आननः, -आस्यः, -मुखः, -वक्त्रः 1 epithets of Śiva.
    -2 a lion (so called because its mouth is generally wide open; पञ्चम् आननं यस्य), (often used at the end of names of learned men to express great learning or respect; न्याय˚, तर्क˚ &c. e. g. जगन्नाथतर्कपञ्चानन); see पञ्च a.
    -3 the sign Leo of the zodiac. (
    -नी) an epithet of Durgā.
    -आम्नायाः m. (pl.) five Śāstras supposed to have proceeded from the five mouths of Śiva.
    -आयतनी, -नम् a group of five deities like गणपति, विष्णु, शंकर, देवी and सूर्य.
    -इन्द्रियम् an aggregate of the five organs (of sense or actions; see इन्द्रियम्).
    -इषुः, -बाणः, -शरः epithets of the god of love; (so called because he has five arrows; their names are:-- अरविन्दमशोकं च चूतं च नवमल्लिका । नीलोत्पलं च पञ्चैते पञ्चबाणस्य सायकाः ॥ the five arrows are also thus named:-- संमोहनोन्मादनौ च शोषणस्तापनस्तथा । स्तम्भनश्चेति कामस्य पञ्चबाणाः प्रकीर्तिताः ॥).
    -उपचारः the five articles of worship i. e. (गन्ध, पुष्प, धूप, दीप and नैवेद्य).
    -उष्मन् m. (pl.) the five digestive fires supposed to be in the body.
    -कपाल a. prepared or offered in five cups.
    -कर्ण a. branded in the ear with the number 'five' (as cattle &c.); cf. P.VI.3.115.
    -कर्मन् n. (in medicine) the five kinds of treatment; i. e. 1 वमन 'giving emetics'; 2 रेचन 'purging'; 3 नस्य 'giving stre- nutatories'; 4 अनुवासन 'administering an enema which is oily', and 5 निरूह 'administering an enema which is not oily. वमनं रेचनं नस्यं निरूहश्चानुवासनम् । पञ्चकर्मेदमन्यश्च ज्ञेयमुत्क्षेपणादिकम् ॥
    -कल्याणकः a horse with white feet and a white mouth.
    -कषाय a decoction from the fruits of five plants (जम्बु, शाल्मलि, वाट्याल, बकुल and बदर).
    -कृत्यम् the five actions by which the Supreme Power manifests itself (सृष्टि, स्थिति, संहार, तिरोभाव and अनुग्रह- करण).
    -कृत्वस् ind. five times.
    -कृष्णः A kind of game. (
    -ष्णाः) The five deities of Mahānubhāva sect namely चक्रवर्ती कृष्ण, Datta of Mātāpura, Gundam Raul of ऋद्धिपुर, चांगदेव राऊळ of द्वारावती and चांगदेव राऊळ of प्रतिष्ठान.
    -कोणः a pentagon.
    -कोलम् the five spices taken collec- tively; पिप्पली पिप्पलीमूलं चव्यचित्रकनागरम् । पञ्चकोलं......... (Mar. पिंपळी, पिंपळमूळ, चवक, चित्रक व सुंठ).
    -कोषाः m. (pl.) the five vestures or wrappers supposed to invest the soul; they are:-- अन्नमयकोष or the earthly body (स्थूलशरीर); प्राणमयकोष the vesture of the vital airs; मनो- मयकोष the sensorial vesture; विज्ञानमयकोष the cognitional vesture (these three form the लिङ्गशरीर); and आनन्द- मयकोष the last vesture, that of beatitude. कोषैरन्नमयाद्यैः पञ्चभिरात्मा न संवृतो भाति । निजशक्तिसमुप्तन्नैः शैवालप़टलैरिवाम्बु वापीस्थम् ॥ Vivekachūdāmaṇi.
    -क्रोशी 1 a distance of five Kroṣas.
    -2 N. of the city, Banares.
    -खट्वम्, -खट्वी a collection of five beds.
    -गत a. (in alg.) raised to the fifth power.
    -गवम् a collection of five cows.
    -गव्यम् the five products of the cow taken collectively; i. e. milk, curds, clarified butter or ghee, urine, and cowdung (क्षीरं दधि तथा चाज्यं मूत्रं गोमयमेव च).
    -गु a. bought with five cows.
    -गुण a. five-fold. (
    -णाः) the five objects of sense (रूप, रस, गन्ध, स्पर्श and शब्द). (
    -णी) the earth.
    -गुप्तः 1 a tortoise (as drawing in its 4 feet and head).
    -2 the materialistic system of philosophy, the doctrines of the Chārvākas.
    -घातः (in music) a kind of mea- sure.
    -चत्वारिंश a. forty-fifth.
    -चत्वारिंशत् f. forty-five.
    -चामरम् N. of 2 kinds of metre; प्रमाणिकापदद्वयं वदन्ति पञ्चचामरम् Vṛittaratnākara.
    -जनः 1 a man, man- kind.
    -2 N. of a demon who had assumed the form of a conch-shell, and was slain by Kṛiṣṇa; तस्मै प्रादाद्वरं पुत्रं मृतं पञ्चजनोदरात् Bhāg.3.3.2.
    -3 the soul.
    -4 the five classes of beings; i. e. gods, men, Gandharvas, serpents and pitṛis; यस्मिन् पञ्च पञ्चजना आकाशश्च प्रतिष्ठितः Bṛi. Up.4.4.17.
    -5 the four primary castes of the Hindus (ब्राह्मण, क्षत्रिय, वैश्य and शूद्र) with the Niṣādas or barbarians as the fifth (pl. in these two senses); (for a full exposition see Sārirabhāṣya on Br. Sūtras 1.4.11-13). (
    -नी) an assemblage of five persons.
    -जनीन a. devoted to the five races. (
    -नः) an actor, a mimic, buffoon, one who is devoted to the pentad viz. singer, musician, dancer, harlot and a jester; गायकवादक- नर्तकदासीभण्डरतः खलु पञ्चजनीनः Bhāsāvritti on P.V.1.9.
    -ज्ञानः 1 an epithet of Buddha as possessing the five kinds of knowledge.
    -2 a man familiar with the doc- trines of the Pāśupatas.
    -तक्षम्, -क्षी a collection of five carpenters.
    -तत्त्वम् 1 the five elements taken collectively; i. e. पृत्थी, अप्, तेजस्, वायु and आकाश.
    -2 (in the Tantras) the five essentials of the Tāntrikas, also called पञ्चमकार because they all begin with म; i. e. मद्य, मांस, मत्स्य, मुद्रा and मैथुन.
    -तन्त्रम् N. of a well-known collection in five books containing moral stories and fables by Visnugupta; पञ्चतन्त्रात्तथान्यस्माद् ग्रन्थादाकृष्य लिख्यते H. Pr.9.
    -तन्मात्रम् the five subtle and pri- mary elements (such as शब्द, रस, स्पर्श and रूप and गन्ध).
    -तपस् m. an ascetic who in summer practises penance sitting in the middle of four fires with the sun burning right over his head; cf. हविर्भुजामेधवतां चतुर्णां मध्ये ललाटंतपसप्तसप्तिः R.13.41; Ku.5.23; Ms.6.23 and Śi.2.51. also; ग्रीष्मे पञ्चतपा वीरो वर्षास्वासारषाण्मुनिः Bhāg. 4.23.6; Rām.3.6.5.
    -तय a. five-fold; वृत्तयः पञ्चतय्यः क्लिष्टा अक्लिष्टाः Mbh. (
    -यः) a pentad.
    -तिक्तम् the five bitter things:-- निवामृतावृषपटोलनिदिग्धिकाश्च.
    -त्रिंश a. thirtyfifth.
    -त्रिंशत्, -त्रिंशतिः f. thirty-five.
    -दश a.
    1 fifteenth.
    -2 increased by fifteen; as in पञ्चदशं शतम् 'one hundred and fifteen'.
    -दशन् a. (pl.) fifteen.
    ˚अहः a period of fifteen days.
    -दशिन् a. made or consisting of fifteen.
    -दशी 1 the fifteenth day of a lunar fort- night (the full or new moon day); Y.1.146.
    -2 N. of a philosophical work (प्रकरणग्रन्थ) by माधवाचार्य (विद्यारण्य).
    -दीर्घम् the five long parts of the body; the arms, eyes, belly, nose and breast; बाहू नेत्रद्वयं कुक्षिर्द्वे तु नासे तथैव च । स्तनयोरन्तरं चैव पञ्चदीर्घं प्रचक्षते ॥
    -देवताः the five deities:-- आदित्यं गणनाथं च देवीं रुद्रं च केशवम् । पञ्चदैवतमित्युक्तं सर्वकर्मसु पूजयेत् ॥
    -धारणक a. upheld by the five elements.
    -नखः 1 any animal with five claws; such as the hare, alligator, tortoise, porcupine, rhinoceros शशकः शल्लकी गोधा खड्गी कूर्मश्च पञ्चमः । पञ्च पञ्चनखा भक्ष्या ये प्रोक्ताः कृतजैर्द्विजैः Bk.6.131; Ms.5.17,18; Y.1.177.
    -2 an elephant.
    -3 a turtle.
    -4 a lion or tiger.
    -नखी, -नखराज an iguana (Mar. घोरपड); Gīrvāṇa.
    -नदः 'the country of five rivers, the modern Panjab (the five rivers being शतद्रु, विपाशा, इरावती, चन्द्रभागा and वितस्ता, or the modern names Sutlej, Beas, Ravee, Chenab and Jhelum).
    -दा (pl.) the people of this country.
    -नवतिः f. ninety-five.
    -निम्बम् the five products of निम्ब viz. (the flowers, fruit, leaves, bark and root).
    -नीराजनम् waving five things before an idol and then falling prostrate before it; (the five things being:-- a lamp, lotus, cloth, mango and betel-leaf).
    -पञ्चाश a. fiftyfifth.
    -पञ्चाशत् f. fifty-five.
    -पदी 1 five steps; पुंसो यमान्तं व्रजतो$पिनिष्ठुरै- रेतैर्धनैः पञ्चपदी न दीयते Pt.2.115.
    -2 the five strong cases, i. e. the first five inflections
    -पर्वन् n. (pl.) the five parvans q. v.; they are चतुर्दश्यष्टमी चैव अमावास्या च पूर्णिमा । पर्वाण्येतानि राजेन्द्र रविसंक्रान्तिरेव च ॥ a. five-knotted (an arrow).
    -पल्लवम् The leaves of the mango, fig, banyan, ficus religiosa (Mar. पिंपळ) and Genus Ficus (Mar. पायरी). There are other variations such as पनस, आम्र, पिप्पल, वट and बकुल. The first group is for the Vedic ritual only.
    -पात्रम् 1 five vessels taken collectively.
    -2 a Srāddha in which offerings are made in five vessels.
    -पाद् a. consisting of five feet, steps, or parts; पञ्चपादं पितरम् Praśna Up.1.11. (-m.) a year (संवत्सर).
    -पादिका N. of a commentary on शारीरकभाष्य.
    -पितृ m. (pl.) the five fathers:-- जनकश्चोपनेता च यश्च कन्यां प्रयच्छति । अन्नदाता भयत्राता पञ्चैते पितरः स्मृताः ॥
    -पित्तम् the bile of five ani- mals viz. (the boar, goat, buffalo, fish and peacock).
    -प्रस्थ a. having five elevations (a forest).
    -प्राणाः m. (pl.) the five life-winds or vital airs: प्राण, अपान, व्यान, उदान, and समान.
    -प्रासादः a temple of a particular size with four pinnacles and a steeple.
    -बन्ध a fine equal to the fifth part of anything lost or stolen.
    -बलाः five medicinal herbs, namely बला, नागबला, महाबला, अति- बला and राजबला.
    -बाणः, -वाणः, -शरः epithets of the god of love; see पञ्चेषु.
    -बाहुः N. of Śiva.
    -बिन्दुप्रसृतम् N. of a particular movement in dancing; Dk.2.
    -बीजानि the five seeds:--कर्कटी, त्रपुस, दाडिम, पद्मबीज, and वानरीबीज.
    -भद्र a.
    1 having five good qualities.
    -2 consisting of five good ingredients (as a sauce &c.).
    -3 having five auspicious marks (as a horse) in the chest, back, face and flanks.
    -4 vicious.
    -द्रः a kind of pavilion.
    -भागिन् m. the five deities of पञ्चमहा- यज्ञ; धर्मकामविहीनस्य चुक्रुधुः पञ्चभागिनः Bhāg.11.23.9.
    -भुज a. pentagonal.
    (-जः) 1 a pentagon; cf. पञ्चकोण.
    -2 N. of Gaṇeśa.
    -भूतम् the five elements; पृथ्वी, अप्, तेजस्, वायु and आकाश.
    -भृङ्गाः the five trees, viz. देवदाली (Mar. देवडंगरी), शमी, भङ्गा (Mar. भांग), निर्गुण्डी and तमालपत्र.
    -मकारम् the five essentials of the left-hand Tantra ritual of which the first letter is म; see पञ्चतत्त्व (2).
    -महापातकम् the five great sins; see महापातक Ms.11. 54.
    -महायज्ञाः m. (pl.) the five daily sacrifices enjoined to be performed by a Brāhmaṇa; अध्यापनं ब्रह्मयज्ञः पितृ- यज्ञस्तु तर्पणम् । होमो दैवो बलिर्भौतो नृयज्ञो$तिथिपूजनम् ॥ Ms.3.7. अहुतं च हुतं चैव तथा प्रहुतमेव च । ब्राह्मं हुतं प्राशितं च पञ्च यज्ञान् प्रचक्षते ॥ Ms.3.73; see महायज्ञ.
    -मारः son of Baladeva; L. D. B.
    -माश(षि)क a. consisting of five Māṣas (as a fine &c.).
    -माष(षि)क a. amounting to five māṣas; गर्दभाजाविकानां तु दण्डः स्यात्पञ्चमाषिकः Ms.8.298.
    -मास्य a. happening every five months.
    -मुखः an arrow with five points; (for other senses see पञ्चानन.)
    -मुद्रा five gestures to be made in presenting offerings to an idol; viz आवाहनी, स्थापनी, संनिधापनी, संबोधनी and संमुखीकरणी; see मुद्रा.
    -मूत्रम् the urine of five female animals; the cow, goat, she-buffalo, sheep, and she-ass.).
    -मूलम् there are nine varieties of the pentad combinations of roots; लघुपञ्चमूल, बृहत्पञ्चमूल, शतावर्यादि, तृणपञ्चमूल, जीवकादिपञ्चमूल, पुनर्नवादिपञ्चमूल, गोक्षुरादि˚, वल्ली˚.
    -रत्नम् a collection of five gems; (they are variously enumerated: (1) नीलकं वज्रकं चेति पद्मरागश्च मौक्तिकम् । प्रवालं चेति विज्ञेयं पंचरत्नं मनीषिभिः ॥ (2) सुवर्णं रजतं मुक्ता राजावर्तं प्रवालकम् । रत्नपञ्चकमाख्यातम्...॥ (3) कनकं हीरकं नीलं पद्मरागश्च मौक्तिकम् । पञ्चरत्नमिदं प्रोक्त- मृषिभिः पूर्वदर्शिभिः ॥
    -2 the five most admired episodes of the Mahābhārata; गीता, विष्णुसहस्रनाम, भीष्मस्तवराज, अनुस्मृति and गजेन्द्रमोक्ष).
    -रसा the आमलकी tree (Mar. आंवळी).
    -रात्रम् 1 a period of five nights; इत्यर्थं वयमानीताः पञ्चरात्रो$पि विद्यते Pañch.3.24.
    -2 N. of one of Bhāsa's dramas.
    -3 N. of a philosophical treatise attributed to Nārada.
    -4 N. of an अहीन (sacrifice) lasting for 5 days; स एतं पञ्चरात्रं पुरुषमेधं यज्ञक्रतुमपश्यत् Śat. Br.; cf. Mb.12.218. 11.
    -राशिकम् the rule of five (in math.).
    -लक्षणम् a Purāṇa; so called because it deals with five important topics:-- सर्गश्च प्रतिसर्गश्च वंशो मन्वन्तराणि च । वंशानुचरितं चैव पुराणं पञ्चलक्षणम् ॥ see पुराण also.
    -लवणम् five kinds of salt; i. e. काचक, सैन्धव, सामुद्र, बिड and सौवर्चल.
    -लाङ्गलकम् a gift (महादान) of as much land as can be cultivated with five ploughs.
    -लोकपालः the five guardian deities viz. Vināyaka, Durgā, Vāyu, Ākāśa and Aśvinīkumāra.
    -लोहम् a metallic alloy containing five metals (i. e. copper, brass, tin, lead and iron).
    -लोहकम् the five metals i. e. gold, silver, copper, tin and lead.
    -वटः the sacred or sacrificial thread worn across the breast (यज्ञोपवीत).
    -वटी 1 the five fig-trees: i. e. अश्वत्थ, बिल्व, वट, धात्री and अशोक.
    -2 N. of a part of the Daṇḍakā forest where the Godāvarī rises and where Rāma dwelt for a considerable time with his beloved; it is two miles from Nasik; परिहरन्तमपि मामितः पञ्चवटीस्नेहो बलादाकर्षतीव U.2.27/28; R.13.34.
    -वर्गः 1 an aggregate of five.
    -2 the five essential elements of the body.
    -3 the five organs of sense; संतुष्टपञ्चवर्गो$हं लोकयात्रां प्रवाहये Rām.2.19.27.
    -4 the five daily sacrifices enjoined to be performed by a Brāhmaṇa; cf. महायज्ञ.
    -5 the five classes of spies (कापटिक, उदास्थित, गृहपतिव्यञ्जन, वैदेहिकव्यञ्जन and तापसव्यञ्जन); cf. Kull. on Ms.7.154.
    -वर्षदेशीय a. about five years old.
    -वर्षीय a. five years old.
    -वल्कलम् a collection of the barks of five kinds of trees; namely न्यग्रोध, उदुम्बर, अश्वत्थ, प्लक्ष and वेतस.
    -वल्लभा N. of Draupadī.
    -वार्षिक a. recurring every five years.
    -वाहिन् a. drawn by five (as a carriage).
    -विंश a. twenty-fifth.
    -शः 1 a Stoma consisting of 25 parts.
    -2 N. of Viṣṇu (regarded as the 25th तत्त्व); स तु जन- परितापं तत्कृतं जानता ते नरहर उपनीतः पञ्चतां पञ्चविंश Bhāg. 7.8.53.
    -विंशतिः f. twenty-five.
    -विंशतिका a collection of twenty-five; as in वेतालपञ्चविंशतिका.
    -विध a. five- fold, of five kinds. ˚प्रकृतिः f. the five departments of a government; अमात्यराष्ट्रदुर्गार्थदण्डाख्याः पञ्च चापराः Ms.7.157.
    -वीरगोष्ठम् an assembly room, concert-hall; रागमञ्जरी नाम पञ्चवीरगोष्ठे संगीतकमनुष्ठास्यति Dk.2.
    -वृत्, -वृतम् ind. five-fold.
    -वृत्तिता depending on senses; Rām.2.1.65.
    -शत a. amounting to five hundred.
    (-तम्) 1 one hundred and five.
    -2 five hundred.
    -शाखः 1 the hand; स्वशिरः पश्चशाखाभ्यामभिहत्यायतेक्षणा Mb.11.17.3; कदापि नो मुञ्चति पञ्चशाखः (नारायणस्य) Rām. Ch.1.9; स्फूर्जद्रत्नाङ्गुलीयद्युतिशबलनखद्योतिभिः पञ्चशाखैः Śiva B.3.49.
    -2 an elephant.
    -शारदीयः N. of a Yāga.
    -शिखः a lion.
    -शीलम् the five rules of conduct; Buddh.
    -शुक्लम् The holy combination of five days, viz. Uttarāyaṇa (day of the gods), the bright half of the month (day of the manes) and day time, हरिवासर and सिद्धक्षेत्र (cf. त्रिशुक्लम्).
    -ष a. (pl.) five or six; सन्त्यन्ये$पि बृहस्पतिप्रभृतयः संभाविताः पञ्चषाः Bh.2.34.
    -षष्ट a. sixty-fifth.
    -षष्टिः f. sixty-five.
    -सटः one with five tufts of hair on the head (सटाः जटाः केशसन्निवेशे मध्ये मध्ये पञ्चसु स्थानेषु क्षौरवद्वापनम्); दासो$यं मुच्यतां राज्ञस्त्वया पञ्चसटः कृतः Mb.3.272.18; (Mar. पांच पाट काढणें).
    -सप्तत a. seventy-fifth.
    -सप्ततिः f. seventy-five.
    -सस्यम् the five grains viz. धान्य, मुद्ग, तिल, यव and माष.
    -सिद्धान्ती f. the five astronomical doctrines from astronomical book like सूर्यसिद्धान्त etc.
    -सिद्धौषधयः the five medi- cinal plants:-- तैलकन्द, सुधाकन्द, क्रोडकन्द, रुदन्तिक, सर्पाक्षी.
    -सुगन्धकम् the five kinds of aromatic vegetable sub- stances; they are:-- कर्पूरकक्कोललवङ्गपुष्पगुवाकजातीफलपञ्चकेन । समांशभागेन च योजितेन मनोहरं पञ्चसुगन्धकं स्यात् ॥.
    -सूनाः f. the five things in a house by which animal life may be accidentally destroyed; they are:-- पञ्चसूना गृहस्थस्य चुल्ली पेषण्युपस्करः कण्डनी चोदकुम्भश्च Ms.3.68.
    -सूरणाः the five medicinal esculent roots; sweet and bitter सूरण, अत्यम्ल- पर्णी, काण्डीर, मालाकन्द. &c.
    -स्रोतम् n. the mind; पञ्चस्रोतसि निष्णातः Mb.12.218.11. (com. पञ्चस्त्रोतांसि विषयकेदारप्रणालिका यस्य तस्मिन् मनसि).
    -हायन a. five years old.

    Sanskrit-English dictionary > पञ्चन् _pañcan

  • 3 of

    əv
    1) (belonging to: a friend of mine.) de
    2) (away from (a place etc); after (a given time): within five miles of London; within a year of his death.) de
    3) (written etc by: the plays of Shakespeare.) de
    4) (belonging to or forming a group: He is one of my friends.) de
    5) (showing: a picture of my father.) de
    6) (made from; consisting of: a dress of silk; a collection of pictures.) de
    7) (used to show an amount, measurement of something: a gallon of petrol; five bags of coal.) de
    8) (about: an account of his work.) de
    9) (containing: a box of chocolates.) de
    10) (used to show a cause: She died of hunger.) de
    11) (used to show a loss or removal: She was robbed of her jewels.) de
    12) (used to show the connection between an action and its object: the smoking of a cigarette.) de
    13) (used to show character, qualities etc: a man of courage.) de
    14) ((American) (of time) a certain number of minutes before (the hour): It's ten minutes of three.) menos
    of prep
    1. de
    2.
    of
    tr[ɒv, ʊnstressed əv]
    4 (showing a part, a quantity) de
    6 (dates, distance) de
    8 (by) de
    9 (originating from, living in) de
    11 (cause) de
    13 (with, having) de
    of ['ʌv, 'ɑv] prep
    1) from: de
    a man of the city: un hombre de la ciudad
    a woman of great ability: una mujer de gran capacidad
    he died of the flu: murió de la gripe
    4) by: de
    the works of Shakespeare: las obras de Shakespeare
    5) (indicating contents, material, or quantity) : de
    a house of wood: una casa de madera
    a glass of water: un vaso de agua
    the front of the house: el frente de la casa
    7) about: sobre, de
    tales of the West: los cuentos del Oeste
    the city of Caracas: la ciudad de Caracas
    9) for: por, a
    love of country: amor por la patria
    five minutes of ten: las diez menos cinco
    the eighth of April: el ocho de abril
    of
    prep.
    • de prep.
    • menos prep.
    ɑːv, ɒv, weak form əv
    1) (indicating relationship, material, content) de

    it's made of wood — es de madera, está hecho de madera

    a colleague of mine/his — un colega mío/suyo

    3)
    b) ( with superl) de
    4)

    it's ten (minutes) of five — (AmE) son las cinco menos diez, son diez para las cinco (AmL exc RPl)

    it's a quarter of five — (AmE) son las cinco menos cuarto, son un cuarto para las cinco (AmL exc RPl)

    Jane, his wife of six months... — Jane, con la que lleva/llevaba casado seis meses...

    the senselessness of it all, that's what depresses me — es lo absurdo de todo el asunto lo que me deprime

    what did he die of? — ¿de qué murió?

    [ɒv, ǝv]
    PREP

    it's no business of yours — aquí no te metas, no tienes que ver con esto

    how much of this do you need? — ¿cuánto necesitas de eso?

    of the 12, two were bad — de los 12, dos estaban pasados

    most of all — sobre todo, más que nada

    made of steel/paper — hecho de acero/papel

    a tragedy of her own making — una tragedia que ella misma había labrado, una tragedia de su propia cosecha

    8) (=concerning) de

    what do you think of him? — ¿qué piensas de él?

    what of it? — ¿y a ti qué (te) importa?, ¿y qué?

    9) (indicating deprivation, riddance)

    it's a quarter of six — (US) son las seis menos cuarto, falta un cuarto para las seis (LAm)

    he died of a Friday — frm murió un viernes

    to judge of sth — juzgar algo, opinar sobre algo

    he was robbed of his watch — le robaron el reloj, se le robó el reloj

    * * *
    [ɑːv, ɒv], weak form [əv]
    1) (indicating relationship, material, content) de

    it's made of wood — es de madera, está hecho de madera

    a colleague of mine/his — un colega mío/suyo

    3)
    b) ( with superl) de
    4)

    it's ten (minutes) of five — (AmE) son las cinco menos diez, son diez para las cinco (AmL exc RPl)

    it's a quarter of five — (AmE) son las cinco menos cuarto, son un cuarto para las cinco (AmL exc RPl)

    Jane, his wife of six months... — Jane, con la que lleva/llevaba casado seis meses...

    the senselessness of it all, that's what depresses me — es lo absurdo de todo el asunto lo que me deprime

    what did he die of? — ¿de qué murió?

    English-spanish dictionary > of

  • 4 दशन् _daśan

    दशन् Num. a. (pl.) Ten; स भूमिं विश्वतो वृत्वा अत्य- तिष्ठद्दशाङ्गुलम् Rv.1.9.1.
    -Comp. -अङ्गुल a. ten fingers long; Ms.8.271.
    (-लम्) 1 a length of 1 fingers; Rv.1.9.1.
    -2 a water-melon.
    -अधिपतिः a commander of ten men. Mb.12.
    -अर्ध a. five, (
    -र्धम्) five; अण्व्यो मात्रा विनाशिन्यो दशार्धानां तु याः स्मृताः Ms.1.27. (
    -र्धः) an epithet of Buddha.
    -अर्हः 1 an epithet of Krisna or Visnu.
    -2 Buddha.
    -अवताराः m. (pl.) the ten incarnations of Viṣṇu; see under अवतार.
    - अवर a. consisting of at least ten; दशावरा वा परिषद्यं धर्मं परिकल्पयेत् Ms.12.11.
    -अश्वः the moon.
    -आननः, -आस्यः epithets of Rāvaṇā; दशाननकिरीटेभ्यस्तत्क्षणं राक्षसप्रियः R.1.75.
    -आमयः an epithet of Rudra.
    -इन्द्रियाणि The five कर्मेन्द्रियs and five ज्ञानेन्द्रियs.
    -ईशः a superintendent of 1 villages; Ms.7.116.
    -एकादशिक a. who lends 1 and re- ceives 11 in return; i. e. who lends money at ten per cent.
    -कण्ठः, -कन्धरः epithets of Rāvaṇa; सप्तलोकैकवीरस्य दशकण्ठ- कुलद्विषः U.4.27. ˚अरिः, ˚जित् m., ˚रिपुः epithets of Rāma; दशकण्ठारिगुरुं विदुर्बुधाः R.8.29.
    -कर्मन् n. the ten ceremo- nies prescribed to the three twice-born classes.
    -कुमार- चरितम् a prose work by Dandin.
    -क्षीर a. mixed with 1 parts of milk.
    -गुण a. ten-fold, ten times larger.
    -गुणित a. multiplied by 1; दशगुणितमिव प्राप्तवान् वीरधर्मम B. R.9.53.
    -ग्रन्थाः (pl.) संहिता, ब्राह्मण, आरण्यक, शिक्षा, कल्प, व्याकरण, निघण्टु, छन्द and निरुक्त; hence
    दशग्रन्थिन् = A person who has learnt by heart all these ten books.
    -ग्रामपतिः, -ग्रामिकः, -ग्रामिन् m.,
    -पः a superintendent of ten villages.
    -ग्रामी a collection or corporation of ten villages.
    -ग्रीवः = दशकण्ठ q.v.
    -चतुष्कम् N. of a sport; Sinhās.27.
    -धर्मः unfavourable condition, distress; अभ्यस्तो बहुभिर्बाणैर्दशधर्मगतेन वै Mb.7.147.2. (see com.).
    -पारमिताध्वरः 'possessing the ten perfec- tions', an epithet of Buddha.
    -पुरम् N. of an ancient city, capital of king Rantideva; पात्रीकुर्वन्दशपुरवधूनेत्रकौतू- हलानाम् Me.49.
    -बन्धः a tenth part; Ms.8.17; also
    ˚बन्धक; Y.2.76.
    -बलः, -भूमिगः epithets of Buddha.
    -बाहुः an epithet of Śiva.
    -भुजा, -महाविद्या N. of Durgā.
    -मालिकाः (pl.)
    1 N. of a country.
    -2 the people or rulers of this country.
    -मास्य a.
    1 ten months old; एवा ते गर्भ एजतु निरैतु दशमास्यः Rv.5.78.7-8.
    -2 ten months in the womb (as a child before birth).
    -मुखः an epithet of Rāvaṇa. ˚रिपुः an epithet of Rāma; सीतां हित्वा दशमुखरिपुर्नोपयेमे यदन्याम् R.14.87.
    -मूत्रकम् The urine of 1 (elephant, buffalo, camel, cow, goat, sheep, horse, donkey, man and woman).
    -मूलम् a tonic medicine prepared from the roots of ten plants; (Mar. सालवण, पिटवण (पृष्टिपर्णी), रिंगणी, डोरली, गोखरूं, बेल, ऐरण, टेंटू, पहाडमूळ, शिवण).
    -योजनम् a distance of 1 Yojanas; पादाङ्गुष्ठेन चिक्षेप संपूर्णं दशयोजनम् Rām.1.1.65; also दशयोजनी; मोहितेन्द्रियवृत्तिं तं व्यतीत्य दशयोजनीम् Ks.94.14.
    -रथः N. of a celebrated king of Ayodhyā, son of Aja, and father of Rāma and his three brothers. [He had three wives Kausalyā, Sumitrā, and Kaikeyī, but was for several years without issue. He was therefore recommended by Vasiṣṭha to perform a sacrifice which he successfully did with the assistance of Ṛiṣyaśṛiṅga. On the completion of this sacrifice Kausalyā bore to him Rāma, Sumitrā Laksmana and Śatrughna, and Kaikeyī Bharata. Daśaratha was extremely fond of his sons, but Rāma was his greatest favourite- 'his life, his very soul.' Thus when Kaikeyī at the instiga- tion of Mantharā demanded the fulfilment of the two boons he had previously promised to her, the king tried to dissuade her mind from her wicked resolve by threats, and, failing these, by the most servile supplica- tions. But Kaikeyī remained inexorable, and the poor monarch was obliged to send his beloved son into exile. He soon afterwards died of a broken heart]. Bhāg.9.1.1 ˚ललिता The fourth day of the dark fortnight of Āśvina.
    -रश्मिशतः the sun; दशरश्मिशतोपमद्युतिम् R.8.29.
    -रात्रम् a period of ten nights. (
    -त्रः) a particular sacrifice lasting for ten days.
    -रूपकम् the 1 kinds of drama.
    -रूपभृत् m. an epithet of Viṣṇu.
    -लक्षण a. relating to 1 objects; इदं भागवतं पुराणं दक्षलक्षणम् Bhāg.2.9.43.
    -णम् ten marks or attributes.
    -लक्षणकः religion; cf. धृतिः क्षमा दमो$स्तेयं शौचमिन्द्रियनिग्रहः । धीर्विद्या सत्यमक्रोधो दशकं धर्मलक्षणम् ॥ Ms.7. 92.
    -वक्त्रः, -वदनः see दशमुख; Bk.9.137.
    -वर्गः the double five classes of अमात्य, राष्ट्र, दुर्ग, कोश and दण्ड; वेत्ता च दशवर्गस्य स्थानवृद्धिक्षयात्मनः Mb.12.57.18 (com. 'अमात्यराष्ट्रदुर्गाणि कोशो दण्डश्च पञ्चमः' इति प्रकृतिपञ्चकं स्वपक्षे परपक्षे चेति दशको वर्गः).
    -वाजिन् m. the moon.
    -वार्षिक a. happening after, or lasting for, ten years; Y.2.24.
    -विध a. of ten kinds.
    -शतम् 1 a thousand; ये सहस्रम- राजन्नासन् दशशता उत Av.5.18.1.
    -2 one hundred and ten. ˚रश्मिः the sun. ˚अक्षः, ˚नयनः Indra; दशशताक्षककुब्दरि- निःसृतः Mb 7.184.47.
    -शती a thousand.
    -स (सा)- हस्रम् ten thousand.
    -हरा 1 an epithet of the Ganges (taking away the 1 sins).
    -2 a festival in honour of the Ganges held on the 1th day of Jyeṣṭha.
    -3 a festival in honour of Durgā held on the tenth of Āśvina.

    Sanskrit-English dictionary > दशन् _daśan

  • 5 चतुर् _catur

    चतुर् num. a. [चत्-उरन् Uṇ.5.58] (always in pl.; m. चत्वारः; f. चतस्रः; n. चत्वारि) Four; चत्वारो वयमृत्विजः Ve.1.25; चतस्रो$वस्था बाल्यं कौमारं यौवनं वार्धकं चेति; चत्वारि शृङ्गा त्रयो अस्य पादाः &c.; शेषान् मासान् गमय चतुरो लोचने मील- यित्वा Me.11. -ind. Four times. [cf. Zend chathru; Gr. tessares; L. quatuor.] [In Comp. the र् of चतुर् is changed to a Visarga (which in some cases becomes श्, ष् or स्, or remains unchanged) before words beginning with hard consonants.]
    -Comp. -अंशः a fourth part.
    -अङ्ग a. having 4 members, quadripartite.
    (-ङ्म्) 1 a complete army consisting of elephants, chariots, cavalry and infantry; चतुरङ्गसमायुक्तं मया सह च तं नय Rām.1.2. 1; एको हि खञ्जनवरो नलिनीदलस्थो दृष्टः करोति चतुरङ्गबलाधिपत्यम् Ś. Til.4; चतुरङ्गबलो राजा जगतीं वशमानयेत् । अहं पञ्चाङ्गबलवाना- काशं वशमानये ॥ Subhāṣ.
    -2 a sort of chess.
    -अङ्गिकः A kind of horse, having four curls on the forehead; यस्य ललाटे भ्रमरचतुष्टयं स चतुरङ्किको नाम । Śālihotra of Bhoj.25.
    -अङ्गिन् a. having four parts. (
    -नी) a complete army, see चतुरङ्ग.
    -अङ्गुलम् 1 the four fingers of the hand.
    -2 four fingers broad.
    -अन्त a. bordered on all sides; भूत्वा चिराय चतुरन्तमहीसपत्नी Ś.4.19.
    -अन्ता the earth.
    -अशीत a. eighty-fourth.
    -अशीति a. or f. eighty four.
    -अश्र, -अस्र a. (for अश्रि-स्रि)
    1 four cornered, quardran- gular; R.6.1. A quality of gems; Kau. A.2.11.
    -2 symmetrical, regular or handsome in all parts; बभूव तस्याश्चतुरस्रशोभि वपुः Ku.1.32.
    (-श्रः, स्रः) 1 a square.
    -2 a quardrangular figure.
    -3 (in astr.) N. of the fourth and eighth lunar mansions.
    -अहन् a period of four days.
    -आत्मन् m. N. of Viṣṇu.
    -आननः, -मुखः an epithet of Brahmā; इतरतापशतानि यथेच्छया वितर तानि सहे चतुरानन Udb.
    -आश्रमम् the four orders or stages of the religious life of a Brāhmaṇa.
    -उत्तर a. increased by four.
    -उषणम् the four hot spices, i. e. black pepper, long pepper, dry ginger, and the root of long pepper.
    -कर्ण (चतुष्कर्ण) a. heard by two persons only; Pt.1.99.
    -ष्काष्ठम् ind. In four directions. चतुष्काष्ठं क्षिपन् वृक्षान्... Bk.9.62.
    -कोण (चतुष्कोण) a. square, quadrangular. (
    -णः) a square, tetragon, any quadrilateral figure.
    -गतिः 1 the Supreme Soul.
    -2 a tortoise.
    -गवः a carriage drawn by four oxen.
    -गुण a. four times, four-fold, quadruple.
    -चत्वारिंशत् (चतुश्च- त्वारिंशत्) a. forty-four; ˚रिंश, ˚रिंशत्तम forty-fourth.
    -चित्यः A pedestal, a raised square; चतुश्चित्यश्च तस्यासी- दष्टादशकरात्मकः Mb.14.88.32.
    - णवत (चतुर्नवत) a. ninety-fourth, or with ninety-four added; चतुर्णवतं शतम् 'one hundred and ninety four'.
    -दन्तः an epithet of Airāvata, the elephant of Indra.
    -दश a. fourteenth.
    -दशन् a. fourteen. ˚रत्नानि (pl.) the fourteen 'jewels' churned out of the ocean; (their names are contained in the following popular Maṅgalāṣṭaka:-- लक्ष्मीः कौस्तुभपारिजातकसुरा धन्वन्तरिश्चन्द्रमा गावः कामदुघाः सुरेश्वरगजो रम्भादिदेवाङ्गनाः । अश्वः सप्तमुखो विषं हरिधनुः शङ्खो$मृतं चाम्बुधे रत्नानीह चतुर्दश प्रतिदिनं कुर्युः सदा मङ्गलम् ॥). ˚विद्या (pl.) the fourteen lores; (they are:-- षडङ्गमिश्रिता वेदा धर्मशास्त्रं पुराणकम् । मीमांसा तर्कमपि च एता विद्याश्चतुर्दश ॥).
    -दशी the fourteenth day of a lunar fortnight.
    -दिशम् the four quarters taken collectively.
    -दिशम् ind. towards the four quarters, on all sides.
    -दोलः, -लम् a royal litter.
    -द्वारम् 1 a house with four entrances on four sides.
    -2 four doors taken collectively.
    -नवति a. or f. ninety-four.
    -पञ्च a. (चतुपञ्च or चतुष्पञ्च) four or five.
    -पञ्चाशत् f. (चतुःपञ्चाशत् or चतुष्पञ्चाशत्) fifty-four.
    -पथः (चतुःपथः or चतुष्पथः) (
    -थम् also) a place where four roads meet, a crossway; Ms.4.39,9,264. (
    -थः) a Brāhmaṇa.
    -पद or
    -पद् a. (चतुष्पद)
    1 having four feet; यथा चतुष्पत्सु च केसरी वरः Rām.4.11.93.
    -2 consisting of four limbs. (
    -दः) a quadruped. (
    -दी) a stanza of four lines; पद्यं चतुष्पदी तच्च वृत्तं जातिरिति द्विधा Chand. M.1.
    -पाटी A river. L. D. B.
    -पाठी (चतुष्पाठी) a school for Brāhmaṇas in which the four Vedas are taught and repeated.
    -पाणिः (चतुष्पाणिः) an epithet of Viṣṇu.
    -पाद्-द (चतुष्पद्-द) a. 1. quadruped.
    -2 consisting of four members or parts. (-m.)
    1 a qua- druped.
    -2 (in law) a judicial procedure (trial of suits) consisting of four processes; i. e. plea, defence, rejoinder, and judgment.
    -3 The science of archery consisting of ग्रहण, धारण, प्रयोग and प्रतिकारः; यो$स्त्रं चतुष्पात् पुनरेव चक्रे । द्रोणः प्रसन्नो$भिवाद्यस्त्वया$सौ Mb.5.3.12-13; प्रतिपेदे चतुष्पादं धनुर्वेदं नृपात्मजः ibid 192.61.
    -पार्श्वम् the four sides of a square.
    -बाहुः an epithet of Viṣṇu. (
    -हु n.) a square.
    -भद्रम् the aggregate of the four ends of human life (पुरुषार्थ); i. e. धर्म, अर्थ, काम and मोक्ष.
    -भागः the fourth part, a quarter.
    -भावः N. of Viṣṇu.
    -भुज a. 1 quadrangular.
    -2 having four arms; Bg.11.46.
    (-जः) 1 an epithet of Viṣṇu; R.16.3.
    -2 a quadrangular figure.
    -3 square. (
    -जम्) a square.
    -मासम् a period of four months; (reckoned from the 11th day in the bright half of आषाढ to the 11th day in the bright half of कार्तिक).
    -मुख having four faces. (
    -खः) an epithet of Brahmā; त्वत्तः सर्वं चतु- र्मुखात् R.1.22.
    (-खम्) 1. four faces; Ku.2.17.
    -2 a house with four entrances.
    -मण्डलम् a four-fold arrangement (of troops &c.)
    -मेधः One who has offered four sacrifices, namely अश्वमेध, पुरुषमेध, सर्वमेध, and पितृमेध.
    -युगम् the aggregate of the four Yugas or ages of the world.
    -युज् a. Consisting of four; चतुर्युजो रथाः सर्वे Mb.5.155.13.
    -रात्रम् (चतूरात्रम्) an aggregate of four nights.
    -वक्त्रः an epithet of Bra- hmā.
    -वर्गः the four ends of human life taken collec- tively (पुरुषार्थ); i. e. धर्म, अर्थ, काम and मोक्षः; चतुर्वर्गफलं ज्ञानं कालावस्थाश्चतुर्युगाः R.1.22.
    -वर्णः 1. the four classes or castes of the Hindus; i. e. ब्राह्मण, क्षत्रिय, वैश्य and शूद्र; चतुर्वर्णमयो लोकः R.1.22.
    -2 four principal colours.
    -वर्षिका a cow four years old.
    -विंश a. 1 twenty fourth.
    -2 having twenty-four added; as चतुर्विंशं शतम् (124).
    -विंशति a. or f. twenty-four.
    -विंशतिक a. consisting of twenty-four.
    -विद्य a. one who has studied the four Vedas.
    -विद्या the four Vedas.
    -विध a. of four sorts or kinds, four-fold.
    -वेद a. familiar with the four Vedas. (
    -दः) the Supreme Soul.
    -व्यूङः N. of Viṣṇu. (
    -हम्) medical science. a. having four kinds of appearance; hence ˚वादिन् 'asserting the four forms of पुरुषोत्तम viz. वासुदेव, संकर्षण, प्रद्युम्न and अनिरुद्ध.'
    -शालम् (चतुःशालम्, चतुश्शालम्, चतुःशाली, चतुश्शाली) a square of four buildings, a quadrangle enclosed by four buildings; अलं चतु शालमिमं प्रवेश्य Mk.3.7; देवीनां चतुःशालमिदम् Pratimā 6.
    -षष्टि a. or f.
    1 sixty-four.
    -2 N. for the Ṛigveda consisting 64 Adhyāyas. ˚कलाः (pl.) the sixty-four arts.
    -सनः N. of Viṣṇu having four embodiments of सनक, सनन्दन, सनत्कुमार and सनातन; आदौ सनात् स्वतपसः स चतुःसनो$भूत् Bhāg.2.7.5.
    -सप्तति a. or f. seventy-four.
    -समम् an unguent of four things, sandal, agallochum, saffron and musk; L. D. B.
    -सीमा the boundaries on all four sides.
    -हायन, -ण a. four years old; (the f. of this word ends in आ if it refers to an inanimate object, and in ई if it refers to an animal).
    -होत्रकम् the four priests taken collectively.

    Sanskrit-English dictionary > चतुर् _catur

  • 6 षष् _ṣaṣ

    षष् num. a. (used in pl., nom. षट्; gen. षण्णाम्) Six; तेषां त्ववयवान् सूक्ष्मान् षण्णामप्यमितौजसाम् Ms.1.16;8.43.
    -Comp. -अंशः (ष़डंशः) a sixth part.
    -अक्षीणः (षडक्षीणः) a fish.
    -अङ्गम् (ष़डङ्गम्) 1 (a) six parts of the body taken collectively: जङ्घे बाहू शिरो मध्यं षडङ्गमिदमुच्यते । (b) The other six parts of the body are 'हृदयशिरःशिखा- नेत्रकवचास्त्राणि' as in Māl.5.2 (नित्यं न्यस्तषडङगचक्रनिहितं हृत्पद्यमध्योदितम्); cf. com. on the verse.
    -2 the six works auxiliary to the Veda; शिक्षा कल्पो व्याकरणं निरुक्तं छन्दसां चितिः । ज्योतिषामयनं चैव षडङ्गो वेद उच्यते ॥ see वेदाङ्ग also. ˚विद् knowing the six वेदाङ्गs; Ms.3.145.
    -3 six auspicious things, i. e. the six things obtained from a cow; गोमूत्रं गोमयं क्षीरं सर्पिर्दधि च रोचना । षडङ्गमेतन्माङ्गल्यं पठितं सर्वदा गवाम् ॥
    -3 any set of six articles.
    ˚जत् m. N. of Viṣṇu.
    -अङ्घ्रिः (षडङ्घ्रिः) a bee; किमिह बहु षडङ्घ्रे गायसि त्वम् Bhāg.1.47.14.; Śi.1.4.
    -अधिक a. (
    -षडधिक) exceeded by six; षडधिकदशनाडीचक्रमध्यस्थितात्मा Māl.5.1.
    -अभिज्ञः (षडभिज्ञः) a Buddhist deified saint.
    -अशीत (षडशीत) eighty-sixth.
    -अशीतिः f.
    (-ष़डशीतिः) 1 eighty-six.
    -2 N. of the four passages of the sun from one zodiacal sign to the other; L. D. B.
    -अष्टकम् (in astr.) a particular Yoga.
    -अहः (ष़डहः) a period of six days.
    -आननः, -वक्त्रः, -वदनः, (षडाननः, षड्वक्त्रः, षड्वदनः) epithets of Kārtikeya; षडाननापीतपयोधरासु नेता चमूनामिव कृत्तिकासु R.14.22.
    -आम्नायः (षडाम्नायः) the six-fold Tantra.
    -ऊर्मिः the six waves of existence.
    -ऊषणम् (ष़डूषणम्) six spices taken collectively; पञ्चकोलं समरिचं षडूषणमुदाहृतम्.
    -ऋतुः m. pl. the six seasons (i. e. वसन्त, ग्रीष्म, वर्षा, शरद्, हेमन्त and शिशिर).
    -कर्ण a. (
    -षट्कर्ण) heard by six ears; i. e. by a third person other than the speaker and the person spoken to; told to more than one listener (as a counsel, secret &c.); षट्कर्णो भिद्यते मन्त्रः Pt.1.99. (
    -र्णः) a kind of lute.
    -कर्मन् n.
    (षट्कर्मन्) 1 the six acts or duties enjoined on a Brāhmaṇa; they are अध्यापनमध्ययनं यजनं याजनं तथा । दानं प्रतिग्रहश्चैव षट्कर्माण्यग्र- जन्मनः ॥ Ms.1.75.
    -2 the six acts allowable to a Brāhmaṇa for his subsistence:- उच्छं प्रतिग्रहो भिक्षा वाणिज्यं पशुपालनम् । कृषिकर्म तथा चेति षट्कर्माण्यग्रजन्मनः ॥.
    -3 the six acts that may be performed by means of magic:- शान्ति, वशीकरण, स्तम्भन, विद्वेष, उच्चाटन and मरण.
    -4 the six acts belonging to the practice of Yoga:- धौतिर्वस्ती तथा नेती नौलिकी (नौलिकः) त्राटकस्तथा । कपालभाती चैतानि षट्कर्माणि समाचरेत् ॥ (-m.)
    1 a Brāhmaṇa skilled in the above six acts.
    -2 one well-versed in the Tantra magical rites.
    -कोण a. (
    -षट्कोण) hexangular.
    (-णम्) 1 a hexagon.
    -2 the thunderbolt of Indra.
    -3 a diamond.
    -गया the sixfold gayā; गयागजो गयादित्यो गायत्री च गदाधरः । गया गयासुरश्चैव षड्गया मुक्तिदायकाः ॥
    -गवम् (षड्गवम् 1 a team or yoke of six oxen.
    -2 a yoke of six (sometimes after the names of other animals); i. e. हस्ति˚, अश्व˚ 'six elephants, horses &c.'.
    -गवीय a. drawn by six oxen; न यद्वहेच्छकटं षड्गवीयम् Mb.8.76.17.
    -गुण a.
    (-षड्गुण) 1 sixfold.
    -2 having six attributes.
    (-णम्) 1 an assem- blage of six qualities.
    -2 the six expedients to be used by a king in foreign politics; see under गुण (21); cf. षाड्गुण्य also.
    -ग्रन्थः a kind of Karañja tree.
    -ग्रन्थि n. (
    -षड्ग्रन्थि) the root of long pepper.
    -ग्रन्थिका (षड्- ग्रन्थिका) zedoary (शठी).
    -चक्रम्, (षट्चक्रम्) the six my- stical circles of the body, i. e. मूलाधार, स्वाधिष्ठान, मणिपूर, अनाहत, विशुद्ध and आज्ञाख्य.
    -चत्वारिंशत् (षट्चत्वारिंशत्) forty-six.
    -चरणः (षट्चरणः) -1 a bee.
    -2 a locust.
    -3 a louse.
    -जः, (ष़ड्जः) the fourth (or first according to some) of the seven primary notes of the Indian gamut; so called because it is derived from the six organs: नासां कण्ठमुरस्तालु जिह्वां दताञ्श्च संस्पृशन् । षड्जः सञ्जायते (षढ्भ्यः संञ्जायते) यस्मात्तस्मात् षड्ज इति स्मृतः ॥ it is said to resemble the note of peacocks; षड्जं रौति मयूरस्तु Nārada; षड्जसंवादिनीः केकाः द्विधा भिन्नाः शिखण्डिभिः R.1.39.
    -तन्त्री N. of the six philosophical systems.
    -त्रिंशत् f. (
    -षट्त्रिंशत्) thirty-six; (
    -षट्रत्रिंश a. thirtysixth).
    -तिलिन् m. one performing six acts with sesamum seeds; तिलोद्वतीं तिलस्नायी तिलहोमी तिलप्रदः । तिलभुक् तिलवापी च षट्तिली नावसीदति ॥
    -दर्शनम् (षड्दर्शनम्) the six principal systems of Hindu philosophy; they are: सांख्य, योग, न्याय, वैशेषिक, मीमांसा and वेदान्त. (
    -नः) one conversant with the above six systems.
    -दीर्घः the six long vowels: आ, ई, ऊ, ऐ, औ.
    -दुर्गम्, (षड्दुर्गम्) the six kinds of forts taken collectivelly; धन्वदुर्गं महीदुर्गं गिरिदुर्गं तथैव च । मनुष्यदुर्गं मृद्दुर्गं वनदुर्गमिति क्रमात् ॥
    -नवतिः f. (
    -षण्णवतिः) ninety-six.
    -पञ्चाशत् f. (
    -षट्पञ्चाशत्) fifty-six.
    -पदः (षट्पदः) 1 a bee; न पङ्कजं तद्यदलीनषट्पदं न षट्पदो$सौ न जुगुञ्ज यः कलम् Bk.2.19; Ku.5.9; R.6.69.
    -2 a louse.
    -3 a verse consisting of six padas. ˚अथितिः
    1 the mango tree.
    -2 the Champaka tree. ˚आनन्दवर्धनः the Aśoka or Kiṅkirāta tree. ˚ज्य a. having bees for the bow-string (as the bow of Cupid); प्रायश्चापं न वहति भयान्मन्मथः षट्पदज्यम् Me.75. ˚प्रियः the tree called नाग- केशर.
    -पदी (षट्पदी) 1 a stanza consisting of six lines.
    -2 a female bee.
    -3 a louse.
    -4 the six states ('यो$शनायापिपासे शोकं मोहं जरां मृत्युमत्येति' इति श्रुत्युक्ताः Mb. 3.314.9 Com.):-- hunger, thrist, sorrow, disordered intellect, old age and death; other version is:-- कामक्रोधौ लोभमोहौ मदमानौ च षट्पदी ।.
    -पादः (षट्पादः) a bee.
    -प्रज्ञः, (षट्प्रज्ञः) 1 one who is well acquainted with six subjects i. e. the four Puruṣārthas or objects of human existence, the nature of the world, and the nature of the Supreme Sprit; धर्मार्थकाममोक्षेषु लोक- तत्त्वार्थयोरपि । षट्सु प्रज्ञा तु यस्यासौ षट्प्रज्ञः परिकीर्तितः ॥
    -2 a lustful or licentious man.
    -3 a good-hearted neighbour.
    -बिन्दुः (षड्बिन्दुः) an epithet of Viṣṇu.
    -भागः (षड्भागः) a sixth part, one-sixth; तपःषड्भागमक्षय्यं ददत्यारण्यका हि नः Ś.2.14; Ms.7.131;8.33.
    -भाववादिन् a maintainer of the theory of the six भावs (i. e. द्रव्य, गुण, कर्मन्, सामान्य, विशेष and समवाय).
    -भुज a.
    (-षड्भुज) 1 six-armed.
    -2 six-sided, hexagonal. (
    -जः) a hexa- gon.
    (-जा) 1 an epithet of Durgā.
    -2 the water- melon.
    -मतस्थापकः (षण्मतस्थापकः) N. of Śaṁkarāchārya.
    -मासः (षण्मासः) a period of six months. ˚निचय a. one who has a store (of food) sufficient for six months; Ms.6.18.
    -मासिक a. (
    -षण्मासिक) half-yearly, occurring every six months.
    -मुखः (षण्मुखः) an epithet of Kārtikeya; स गुणानां बलानां च षण्णां षण्मुख- विक्रमः R.17.67; Mv.1.33. (खा) a water-melon.
    -रसम्, -रसाः (m. pl.) (
    -षड्रसम् &c.) the six flavours taken collectively; see under रस.
    -रात्रम् (षड्रात्रम्) a period of six nights.
    -रेखा, (षड्रेखा) a water-melon.
    -वर्गः (षड्वर्गः) 1 an aggregate of six things.
    -2 espe- cially, the six enemies of mankind; (also called षड्रिपु); कामः क्रोधस्तथा लोभो मदमोहौ च मत्सरः; कृतारिषड्वर्गजयेन Ki.1 9; व्यजेष्ठ षड्वर्गम् Bk.1.2.
    -3 the five senses and Manas.
    -र्विशम् N. of a Brāhmaṇa belonging to the Sāma Veda.
    -विंशतिः f. (
    -षड्विंशतिः)twenty-six; (
    -षड्विंश twentysixth).
    -विध (षड्विध) a. of six kinds, sixfold; षड्विधं बलमादाय प्रतस्थे दिग्जिगीषया R.4.26.
    -शास्त्रिन् m. one conversant with the six Śāstras or darśanas.
    -षष्टिः f. (
    -षट्षष्टिः) sixty-six.
    -सप्ततिः (षट्सप्ततिः) seventy-six.

    Sanskrit-English dictionary > षष् _ṣaṣ

  • 7 over

    over1
    1 [voorbij] over ⇒ finished
    ♦voorbeelden:
    1   de pijn is al over • the pain has gone
         dat is over • that is done with/finished
         over was de pret • the party was over
    II 〈 bijwoord〉
    1 [van de ene plaats naar de andere] across, over
    2 [resterend] left, over
    3 [boven de maat] spare
    ♦voorbeelden:
    1   zij wandelden nog eens de markt over • they walked across the market-place once more
         〈 verkeer〉 klaar, over! • cross now!
         met het vliegtuig ben je in een paar uur over • you get across in a few hours by (aero)plane
         morgen gaan we over • we are moving tomorrow
         deze leerling is over • this pupil has moved up
         men liep over en weer • there was a lot of toing and froing
         zij zijn over uit Canada • they are over from Canada
         over en weer • back and forth; 〈 van weerskanten〉 from both sides
         elkaar maar over en weer verwijten maken • do nothing but pass the blame (onto one another)
    2   er is 10 gulden over • there are 10 guilders left
         als er genoeg tijd over is • if there is enough time left
         het is over van gisteren • that is left over from yesterday
         〈 communicatiemedia〉 over! • over (to you)!
    3   redenen te over • plenty of/abundant reasons
    ————————
    over2
    〈 voorzetsel〉
    1 [boven] over, above
    2 [op, langs, aan de andere kant van] across, over
    3 [met betrekking tot het bedekken van een oppervlak] over, across
    4 [wat betreft] about
    5 [via] by way of, via
    6 [gedurende] over
    7 [wegens] about
    8 [boven/langs iets heen] over ⇒ across
    9 [na verloop van] after, in
    10 [meer/verder dan] over, past
    11 [met betrekking tot een relatie van een meerdere tot mindere] over
    ♦voorbeelden:
    1   zij boog zich over het ledikantje • she bent over the cot
    2   hij werkt over de grens • he works across/over the border
         over de heuvels • over/beyond the hills
         een koude rilling liep over haar rug • a cold shiver ran down her spine
         over straat lopen • walk in/across the street; 〈 oversteken〉 cross (over) the street
         met de benen over elkaar (geslagen) • with legs crossed
    3   over de hele lengte • all along
         〈 schaken〉 een match over zes partijen • a match consisting of six games
         werk verdelen over de mensen • share out work among the people
         dwars over het pad • right across the path
         een kleed over de tafel leggen • put a cloth over/on the table
         over de hele wereld • all over the world
         zij heeft iets innemends over zich • she has got something charming about her
    4   een film over Gandhi • a film about Gandhi
         de winst over het vierde kwartaal • the profit over the fourth quarter
         over deze zaak heb ik niets te zeggen • on this matter I have nothing to say
         zijn gedachten over iets laten gaan • turn something over in one's mind
    5   over een brug lopen • walk over a bridge
         zij communiceren over de mobilofoon • they communicate by mobile telephone
         zij reed over Nijmegen naar Zwolle • she drove to Zwolle via Nijmegen
         over de post • by post
         een brug over de rivier • a bridge over/across the river
    6   iets bespreken over een glas wijn • discuss something over a glass of wine
         over een periode van … • over a period of …
    7   voldaan over de afloop • satisfied with the outcome
         verheugd over • delighted at/with
    8   over de grens komen • get over the border
         vallen over iets/iemand • 〈 figuurlijk〉 take exception to something/someone
    9   over een dag of tien/twee minuten • in about ten days(' time)/in two minutes(' time)
         zaterdag over een week • a week on/from Saturday
    10  zij is twee maanden over tijd • 〈 ook figuurlijk〉 she is two months overdue
         hij is over de zeventig • 〈 ook〉 he has turned seventy
         tot over zijn oren in de problemen zitten • be up to one's neck in trouble
         hij is over de twee meter (lang) • he is over two metres (tall)
         het is over vieren • it is past four
         het is kwart over vijf • it is a quarter past five
         een man van over de zeventig (jaar oud) • a man of over seventy (years old)
         het is vijf over half zes • it is twenty-five to six
    11  beschikken over • have at one's disposal

    Van Dale Handwoordenboek Nederlands-Engels > over

  • 8 Historical Portugal

       Before Romans described western Iberia or Hispania as "Lusitania," ancient Iberians inhabited the land. Phoenician and Greek trading settlements grew up in the Tagus estuary area and nearby coasts. Beginning around 202 BCE, Romans invaded what is today southern Portugal. With Rome's defeat of Carthage, Romans proceeded to conquer and rule the western region north of the Tagus, which they named Roman "Lusitania." In the fourth century CE, as Rome's rule weakened, the area experienced yet another invasion—Germanic tribes, principally the Suevi, who eventually were Christianized. During the sixth century CE, the Suevi kingdom was superseded by yet another Germanic tribe—the Christian Visigoths.
       A major turning point in Portugal's history came in 711, as Muslim armies from North Africa, consisting of both Arab and Berber elements, invaded the Iberian Peninsula from across the Straits of Gibraltar. They entered what is now Portugal in 714, and proceeded to conquer most of the country except for the far north. For the next half a millennium, Islam and Muslim presence in Portugal left a significant mark upon the politics, government, language, and culture of the country.
       Islam, Reconquest, and Portugal Created, 714-1140
       The long frontier struggle between Muslim invaders and Christian communities in the north of the Iberian peninsula was called the Reconquista (Reconquest). It was during this struggle that the first dynasty of Portuguese kings (Burgundian) emerged and the independent monarchy of Portugal was established. Christian forces moved south from what is now the extreme north of Portugal and gradually defeated Muslim forces, besieging and capturing towns under Muslim sway. In the ninth century, as Christian forces slowly made their way southward, Christian elements were dominant only in the area between Minho province and the Douro River; this region became known as "territorium Portu-calense."
       In the 11th century, the advance of the Reconquest quickened as local Christian armies were reinforced by crusading knights from what is now France and England. Christian forces took Montemor (1034), at the Mondego River; Lamego (1058); Viseu (1058); and Coimbra (1064). In 1095, the king of Castile and Léon granted the country of "Portu-cale," what became northern Portugal, to a Burgundian count who had emigrated from France. This was the foundation of Portugal. In 1139, a descendant of this count, Afonso Henriques, proclaimed himself "King of Portugal." He was Portugal's first monarch, the "Founder," and the first of the Burgundian dynasty, which ruled until 1385.
       The emergence of Portugal in the 12th century as a separate monarchy in Iberia occurred before the Christian Reconquest of the peninsula. In the 1140s, the pope in Rome recognized Afonso Henriques as king of Portugal. In 1147, after a long, bloody siege, Muslim-occupied Lisbon fell to Afonso Henriques's army. Lisbon was the greatest prize of the 500-year war. Assisting this effort were English crusaders on their way to the Holy Land; the first bishop of Lisbon was an Englishman. When the Portuguese captured Faro and Silves in the Algarve province in 1248-50, the Reconquest of the extreme western portion of the Iberian peninsula was complete—significantly, more than two centuries before the Spanish crown completed the Reconquest of the eastern portion by capturing Granada in 1492.
       Consolidation and Independence of Burgundian Portugal, 1140-1385
       Two main themes of Portugal's early existence as a monarchy are the consolidation of control over the realm and the defeat of a Castil-ian threat from the east to its independence. At the end of this period came the birth of a new royal dynasty (Aviz), which prepared to carry the Christian Reconquest beyond continental Portugal across the straits of Gibraltar to North Africa. There was a variety of motives behind these developments. Portugal's independent existence was imperiled by threats from neighboring Iberian kingdoms to the north and east. Politics were dominated not only by efforts against the Muslims in
       Portugal (until 1250) and in nearby southern Spain (until 1492), but also by internecine warfare among the kingdoms of Castile, Léon, Aragon, and Portugal. A final comeback of Muslim forces was defeated at the battle of Salado (1340) by allied Castilian and Portuguese forces. In the emerging Kingdom of Portugal, the monarch gradually gained power over and neutralized the nobility and the Church.
       The historic and commonplace Portuguese saying "From Spain, neither a good wind nor a good marriage" was literally played out in diplomacy and war in the late 14th-century struggles for mastery in the peninsula. Larger, more populous Castile was pitted against smaller Portugal. Castile's Juan I intended to force a union between Castile and Portugal during this era of confusion and conflict. In late 1383, Portugal's King Fernando, the last king of the Burgundian dynasty, suddenly died prematurely at age 38, and the Master of Aviz, Portugal's most powerful nobleman, took up the cause of independence and resistance against Castile's invasion. The Master of Aviz, who became King João I of Portugal, was able to obtain foreign assistance. With the aid of English archers, Joao's armies defeated the Castilians in the crucial battle of Aljubarrota, on 14 August 1385, a victory that assured the independence of the Portuguese monarchy from its Castilian nemesis for several centuries.
       Aviz Dynasty and Portugal's First Overseas Empire, 1385-1580
       The results of the victory at Aljubarrota, much celebrated in Portugal's art and monuments, and the rise of the Aviz dynasty also helped to establish a new merchant class in Lisbon and Oporto, Portugal's second city. This group supported King João I's program of carrying the Reconquest to North Africa, since it was interested in expanding Portugal's foreign commerce and tapping into Muslim trade routes and resources in Africa. With the Reconquest against the Muslims completed in Portugal and the threat from Castile thwarted for the moment, the Aviz dynasty launched an era of overseas conquest, exploration, and trade. These efforts dominated Portugal's 15th and 16th centuries.
       The overseas empire and age of Discoveries began with Portugal's bold conquest in 1415 of the Moroccan city of Ceuta. One royal member of the 1415 expedition was young, 21-year-old Prince Henry, later known in history as "Prince Henry the Navigator." His part in the capture of Ceuta won Henry his knighthood and began Portugal's "Marvelous Century," during which the small kingdom was counted as a European and world power of consequence. Henry was the son of King João I and his English queen, Philippa of Lancaster, but he did not inherit the throne. Instead, he spent most of his life and his fortune, and that of the wealthy military Order of Christ, on various imperial ventures and on voyages of exploration down the African coast and into the Atlantic. While mythology has surrounded Henry's controversial role in the Discoveries, and this role has been exaggerated, there is no doubt that he played a vital part in the initiation of Portugal's first overseas empire and in encouraging exploration. He was naturally curious, had a sense of mission for Portugal, and was a strong leader. He also had wealth to expend; at least a third of the African voyages of the time were under his sponsorship. If Prince Henry himself knew little science, significant scientific advances in navigation were made in his day.
       What were Portugal's motives for this new imperial effort? The well-worn historical cliche of "God, Glory, and Gold" can only partly explain the motivation of a small kingdom with few natural resources and barely 1 million people, which was greatly outnumbered by the other powers it confronted. Among Portuguese objectives were the desire to exploit known North African trade routes and resources (gold, wheat, leather, weaponry, and other goods that were scarce in Iberia); the need to outflank the Muslim world in the Mediterranean by sailing around Africa, attacking Muslims en route; and the wish to ally with Christian kingdoms beyond Africa. This enterprise also involved a strategy of breaking the Venetian spice monopoly by trading directly with the East by means of discovering and exploiting a sea route around Africa to Asia. Besides the commercial motives, Portugal nurtured a strong crusading sense of Christian mission, and various classes in the kingdom saw an opportunity for fame and gain.
       By the time of Prince Henry's death in 1460, Portugal had gained control of the Atlantic archipelagos of the Azores and Madeiras, begun to colonize the Cape Verde Islands, failed to conquer the Canary Islands from Castile, captured various cities on Morocco's coast, and explored as far as Senegal, West Africa, down the African coast. By 1488, Bar-tolomeu Dias had rounded the Cape of Good Hope in South Africa and thereby discovered the way to the Indian Ocean.
       Portugal's largely coastal African empire and later its fragile Asian empire brought unexpected wealth but were purchased at a high price. Costs included wars of conquest and defense against rival powers, manning the far-flung navel and trade fleets and scattered castle-fortresses, and staffing its small but fierce armies, all of which entailed a loss of skills and population to maintain a scattered empire. Always short of capital, the monarchy became indebted to bankers. There were many defeats beginning in the 16th century at the hands of the larger imperial European monarchies (Spain, France, England, and Holland) and many attacks on Portugal and its strung-out empire. Typically, there was also the conflict that arose when a tenuously held world empire that rarely if ever paid its way demanded finance and manpower Portugal itself lacked.
       The first 80 years of the glorious imperial era, the golden age of Portugal's imperial power and world influence, was an African phase. During 1415-88, Portuguese navigators and explorers in small ships, some of them caravelas (caravels), explored the treacherous, disease-ridden coasts of Africa from Morocco to South Africa beyond the Cape of Good Hope. By the 1470s, the Portuguese had reached the Gulf of Guinea and, in the early 1480s, what is now Angola. Bartolomeu Dias's extraordinary voyage of 1487-88 to South Africa's coast and the edge of the Indian Ocean convinced Portugal that the best route to Asia's spices and Christians lay south, around the tip of southern Africa. Between 1488 and 1495, there was a hiatus caused in part by domestic conflict in Portugal, discussion of resources available for further conquests beyond Africa in Asia, and serious questions as to Portugal's capacity to reach beyond Africa. In 1495, King Manuel and his council decided to strike for Asia, whatever the consequences. In 1497-99, Vasco da Gama, under royal orders, made the epic two-year voyage that discovered the sea route to western India (Asia), outflanked Islam and Venice, and began Portugal's Asian empire. Within 50 years, Portugal had discovered and begun the exploitation of its largest colony, Brazil, and set up forts and trading posts from the Middle East (Aden and Ormuz), India (Calicut, Goa, etc.), Malacca, and Indonesia to Macau in China.
       By the 1550s, parts of its largely coastal, maritime trading post empire from Morocco to the Moluccas were under siege from various hostile forces, including Muslims, Christians, and Hindi. Although Moroccan forces expelled the Portuguese from the major coastal cities by 1550, the rival European monarchies of Castile (Spain), England, France, and later Holland began to seize portions of her undermanned, outgunned maritime empire.
       In 1580, Phillip II of Spain, whose mother was a Portuguese princess and who had a strong claim to the Portuguese throne, invaded Portugal, claimed the throne, and assumed control over the realm and, by extension, its African, Asian, and American empires. Phillip II filled the power vacuum that appeared in Portugal following the loss of most of Portugal's army and its young, headstrong King Sebastião in a disastrous war in Morocco. Sebastiao's death in battle (1578) and the lack of a natural heir to succeed him, as well as the weak leadership of the cardinal who briefly assumed control in Lisbon, led to a crisis that Spain's strong monarch exploited. As a result, Portugal lost its independence to Spain for a period of 60 years.
       Portugal under Spanish Rule, 1580-1640
       Despite the disastrous nature of Portugal's experience under Spanish rule, "The Babylonian Captivity" gave birth to modern Portuguese nationalism, its second overseas empire, and its modern alliance system with England. Although Spain allowed Portugal's weakened empire some autonomy, Spanish rule in Portugal became increasingly burdensome and unacceptable. Spain's ambitious imperial efforts in Europe and overseas had an impact on the Portuguese as Spain made greater and greater demands on its smaller neighbor for manpower and money. Portugal's culture underwent a controversial Castilianization, while its empire became hostage to Spain's fortunes. New rival powers England, France, and Holland attacked and took parts of Spain's empire and at the same time attacked Portugal's empire, as well as the mother country.
       Portugal's empire bore the consequences of being attacked by Spain's bitter enemies in what was a form of world war. Portuguese losses were heavy. By 1640, Portugal had lost most of its Moroccan cities as well as Ceylon, the Moluccas, and sections of India. With this, Portugal's Asian empire was gravely weakened. Only Goa, Damão, Diu, Bombay, Timor, and Macau remained and, in Brazil, Dutch forces occupied the northeast.
       On 1 December 1640, long commemorated as a national holiday, Portuguese rebels led by the duke of Braganza overthrew Spanish domination and took advantage of Spanish weakness following a more serious rebellion in Catalonia. Portugal regained independence from Spain, but at a price: dependence on foreign assistance to maintain its independence in the form of the renewal of the alliance with England.
       Restoration and Second Empire, 1640-1822
       Foreign affairs and empire dominated the restoration era and aftermath, and Portugal again briefly enjoyed greater European power and prestige. The Anglo-Portuguese Alliance was renewed and strengthened in treaties of 1642, 1654, and 1661, and Portugal's independence from Spain was underwritten by English pledges and armed assistance. In a Luso-Spanish treaty of 1668, Spain recognized Portugal's independence. Portugal's alliance with England was a marriage of convenience and necessity between two monarchies with important religious, cultural, and social differences. In return for legal, diplomatic, and trade privileges, as well as the use during war and peace of Portugal's great Lisbon harbor and colonial ports for England's navy, England pledged to protect Portugal and its scattered empire from any attack. The previously cited 17th-century alliance treaties were renewed later in the Treaty of Windsor, signed in London in 1899. On at least 10 different occasions after 1640, and during the next two centuries, England was central in helping prevent or repel foreign invasions of its ally, Portugal.
       Portugal's second empire (1640-1822) was largely Brazil-oriented. Portuguese colonization, exploitation of wealth, and emigration focused on Portuguese America, and imperial revenues came chiefly from Brazil. Between 1670 and 1740, Portugal's royalty and nobility grew wealthier on funds derived from Brazilian gold, diamonds, sugar, tobacco, and other crops, an enterprise supported by the Atlantic slave trade and the supply of African slave labor from West Africa and Angola. Visitors today can see where much of that wealth was invested: Portugal's rich legacy of monumental architecture. Meanwhile, the African slave trade took a toll in Angola and West Africa.
       In continental Portugal, absolutist monarchy dominated politics and government, and there was a struggle for position and power between the monarchy and other institutions, such as the Church and nobility. King José I's chief minister, usually known in history as the marquis of Pombal (ruled 1750-77), sharply suppressed the nobility and the
       Church (including the Inquisition, now a weak institution) and expelled the Jesuits. Pombal also made an effort to reduce economic dependence on England, Portugal's oldest ally. But his successes did not last much beyond his disputed time in office.
       Beginning in the late 18th century, the European-wide impact of the French Revolution and the rise of Napoleon placed Portugal in a vulnerable position. With the monarchy ineffectively led by an insane queen (Maria I) and her indecisive regent son (João VI), Portugal again became the focus of foreign ambition and aggression. With England unable to provide decisive assistance in time, France—with Spain's consent—invaded Portugal in 1807. As Napoleon's army under General Junot entered Lisbon meeting no resistance, Portugal's royal family fled on a British fleet to Brazil, where it remained in exile until 1821. In the meantime, Portugal's overseas empire was again under threat. There was a power vacuum as the monarch was absent, foreign armies were present, and new political notions of liberalism and constitutional monarchy were exciting various groups of citizens.
       Again England came to the rescue, this time in the form of the armies of the duke of Wellington. Three successive French invasions of Portugal were defeated and expelled, and Wellington succeeded in carrying the war against Napoleon across the Portuguese frontier into Spain. The presence of the English army, the new French-born liberal ideas, and the political vacuum combined to create revolutionary conditions. The French invasions and the peninsular wars, where Portuguese armed forces played a key role, marked the beginning of a new era in politics.
       Liberalism and Constitutional Monarchy, 1822-1910
       During 1807-22, foreign invasions, war, and civil strife over conflicting political ideas gravely damaged Portugal's commerce, economy, and novice industry. The next terrible blow was the loss of Brazil in 1822, the jewel in the imperial crown. Portugal's very independence seemed to be at risk. In vain, Portugal sought to resist Brazilian independence by force, but in 1825 it formally acknowledged Brazilian independence by treaty.
       Portugal's slow recovery from the destructive French invasions and the "war of independence" was complicated by civil strife over the form of constitutional monarchy that best suited Portugal. After struggles over these issues between 1820 and 1834, Portugal settled somewhat uncertainly into a moderate constitutional monarchy whose constitution (Charter of 1826) lent it strong political powers to exert a moderating influence between the executive and legislative branches of the government. It also featured a new upper middle class based on land ownership and commerce; a Catholic Church that, although still important, lived with reduced privileges and property; a largely African (third) empire to which Lisbon and Oporto devoted increasing spiritual and material resources, starting with the liberal imperial plans of 1836 and 1851, and continuing with the work of institutions like the Lisbon Society of Geography (established 1875); and a mass of rural peasants whose bonds to the land weakened after 1850 and who began to immigrate in increasing numbers to Brazil and North America.
       Chronic military intervention in national politics began in 19th-century Portugal. Such intervention, usually commencing with coups or pronunciamentos (military revolts), was a shortcut to the spoils of political office and could reflect popular discontent as well as the power of personalities. An early example of this was the 1817 golpe (coup) attempt of General Gomes Freire against British military rule in Portugal before the return of King João VI from Brazil. Except for a more stable period from 1851 to 1880, military intervention in politics, or the threat thereof, became a feature of the constitutional monarchy's political life, and it continued into the First Republic and the subsequent Estado Novo.
       Beginning with the Regeneration period (1851-80), Portugal experienced greater political stability and economic progress. Military intervention in politics virtually ceased; industrialization and construction of railroads, roads, and bridges proceeded; two political parties (Regenerators and Historicals) worked out a system of rotation in power; and leading intellectuals sparked a cultural revival in several fields. In 19th-century literature, there was a new golden age led by such figures as Alexandre Herculano (historian), Eça de Queirós (novelist), Almeida Garrett (playwright and essayist), Antero de Quental (poet), and Joaquim Oliveira Martins (historian and social scientist). In its third overseas empire, Portugal attempted to replace the slave trade and slavery with legitimate economic activities; to reform the administration; and to expand Portuguese holdings beyond coastal footholds deep into the African hinterlands in West, West Central, and East Africa. After 1841, to some extent, and especially after 1870, colonial affairs, combined with intense nationalism, pressures for economic profit in Africa, sentiment for national revival, and the drift of European affairs would make or break Lisbon governments.
       Beginning with the political crisis that arose out of the "English Ultimatum" affair of January 1890, the monarchy became discredtted and identified with the poorly functioning government, political parties splintered, and republicanism found more supporters. Portugal participated in the "Scramble for Africa," expanding its African holdings, but failed to annex territory connecting Angola and Mozambique. A growing foreign debt and state bankruptcy as of the early 1890s damaged the constitutional monarchy's reputation, despite the efforts of King Carlos in diplomacy, the renewal of the alliance in the Windsor Treaty of 1899, and the successful if bloody colonial wars in the empire (1880-97). Republicanism proclaimed that Portugal's weak economy and poor society were due to two historic institutions: the monarchy and the Catholic Church. A republic, its stalwarts claimed, would bring greater individual liberty; efficient, if more decentralized government; and a stronger colonial program while stripping the Church of its role in both society and education.
       As the monarchy lost support and republicans became more aggressive, violence increased in politics. King Carlos I and his heir Luís were murdered in Lisbon by anarchist-republicans on 1 February 1908. Following a military and civil insurrection and fighting between monarchist and republican forces, on 5 October 1910, King Manuel II fled Portugal and a republic was proclaimed.
       First Parliamentary Republic, 1910-26
       Portugal's first attempt at republican government was the most unstable, turbulent parliamentary republic in the history of 20th-century Western Europe. During a little under 16 years of the republic, there were 45 governments, a number of legislatures that did not complete normal terms, military coups, and only one president who completed his four-year term in office. Portuguese society was poorly prepared for this political experiment. Among the deadly legacies of the monarchy were a huge public debt; a largely rural, apolitical, and illiterate peasant population; conflict over the causes of the country's misfortunes; and lack of experience with a pluralist, democratic system.
       The republic had some talented leadership but lacked popular, institutional, and economic support. The 1911 republican constitution established only a limited democracy, as only a small portion of the adult male citizenry was eligible to vote. In a country where the majority was Catholic, the republic passed harshly anticlerical laws, and its institutions and supporters persecuted both the Church and its adherents. During its brief disjointed life, the First Republic drafted important reform plans in economic, social, and educational affairs; actively promoted development in the empire; and pursued a liberal, generous foreign policy. Following British requests for Portugal's assistance in World War I, Portugal entered the war on the Allied side in March 1916 and sent armies to Flanders and Portuguese Africa. Portugal's intervention in that conflict, however, was too costly in many respects, and the ultimate failure of the republic in part may be ascribed to Portugal's World War I activities.
       Unfortunately for the republic, its time coincided with new threats to Portugal's African possessions: World War I, social and political demands from various classes that could not be reconciled, excessive military intervention in politics, and, in particular, the worst economic and financial crisis Portugal had experienced since the 16th and 17th centuries. After the original Portuguese Republican Party (PRP, also known as the "Democrats") splintered into three warring groups in 1912, no true multiparty system emerged. The Democrats, except for only one or two elections, held an iron monopoly of electoral power, and political corruption became a major issue. As extreme right-wing dictatorships elsewhere in Europe began to take power in Italy (1922), neighboring Spain (1923), and Greece (1925), what scant popular support remained for the republic collapsed. Backed by a right-wing coalition of landowners from Alentejo, clergy, Coimbra University faculty and students, Catholic organizations, and big business, career military officers led by General Gomes da Costa executed a coup on 28 May 1926, turned out the last republican government, and established a military government.
       The Estado Novo (New State), 1926-74
       During the military phase (1926-32) of the Estado Novo, professional military officers, largely from the army, governed and administered Portugal and held key cabinet posts, but soon discovered that the military possessed no magic formula that could readily solve the problems inherited from the First Republic. Especially during the years 1926-31, the military dictatorship, even with its political repression of republican activities and institutions (military censorship of the press, political police action, and closure of the republic's rowdy parliament), was characterized by similar weaknesses: personalism and factionalism; military coups and political instability, including civil strife and loss of life; state debt and bankruptcy; and a weak economy. "Barracks parliamentarism" was not an acceptable alternative even to the "Nightmare Republic."
       Led by General Óscar Carmona, who had replaced and sent into exile General Gomes da Costa, the military dictatorship turned to a civilian expert in finance and economics to break the budget impasse and bring coherence to the disorganized system. Appointed minister of finance on 27 April 1928, the Coimbra University Law School professor of economics Antônio de Oliveira Salazar (1889-1970) first reformed finance, helped balance the budget, and then turned to other concerns as he garnered extraordinary governing powers. In 1930, he was appointed interim head of another key ministry (Colonies) and within a few years had become, in effect, a civilian dictator who, with the military hierarchy's support, provided the government with coherence, a program, and a set of policies.
       For nearly 40 years after he was appointed the first civilian prime minister in 1932, Salazar's personality dominated the government. Unlike extreme right-wing dictators elsewhere in Europe, Salazar was directly appointed by the army but was never endorsed by a popular political party, street militia, or voter base. The scholarly, reclusive former Coimbra University professor built up what became known after 1932 as the Estado Novo ("New State"), which at the time of its overthrow by another military coup in 1974, was the longest surviving authoritarian regime in Western Europe. The system of Salazar and the largely academic and technocratic ruling group he gathered in his cabinets was based on the central bureaucracy of the state, which was supported by the president of the republic—always a senior career military officer, General Óscar Carmona (1928-51), General Craveiro Lopes (1951-58), and Admiral Américo Tómaz (1958-74)—and the complicity of various institutions. These included a rubber-stamp legislature called the National Assembly (1935-74) and a political police known under various names: PVDE (1932-45), PIDE (1945-69),
       and DGS (1969-74). Other defenders of the Estado Novo security were paramilitary organizations such as the National Republican Guard (GNR); the Portuguese Legion (PL); and the Portuguese Youth [Movement]. In addition to censorship of the media, theater, and books, there was political repression and a deliberate policy of depoliticization. All political parties except for the approved movement of regime loyalists, the União Nacional or (National Union), were banned.
       The most vigorous and more popular period of the New State was 1932-44, when the basic structures were established. Never monolithic or entirely the work of one person (Salazar), the New State was constructed with the assistance of several dozen top associates who were mainly academics from law schools, some technocrats with specialized skills, and a handful of trusted career military officers. The 1933 Constitution declared Portugal to be a "unitary, corporative Republic," and pressures to restore the monarchy were resisted. Although some of the regime's followers were fascists and pseudofascists, many more were conservative Catholics, integralists, nationalists, and monarchists of different varieties, and even some reactionary republicans. If the New State was authoritarian, it was not totalitarian and, unlike fascism in Benito Mussolini's Italy or Adolf Hitler's Germany, it usually employed the minimum of violence necessary to defeat what remained a largely fractious, incoherent opposition.
       With the tumultuous Second Republic and the subsequent civil war in nearby Spain, the regime felt threatened and reinforced its defenses. During what Salazar rightly perceived as a time of foreign policy crisis for Portugal (1936-45), he assumed control of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. From there, he pursued four basic foreign policy objectives: supporting the Nationalist rebels of General Francisco Franco in the Spanish Civil War (1936-39) and concluding defense treaties with a triumphant Franco; ensuring that General Franco in an exhausted Spain did not enter World War II on the Axis side; maintaining Portuguese neutrality in World War II with a post-1942 tilt toward the Allies, including granting Britain and the United States use of bases in the Azores Islands; and preserving and protecting Portugal's Atlantic Islands and its extensive, if poor, overseas empire in Africa and Asia.
       During the middle years of the New State (1944-58), many key Salazar associates in government either died or resigned, and there was greater social unrest in the form of unprecedented strikes and clandestine Communist activities, intensified opposition, and new threatening international pressures on Portugal's overseas empire. During the earlier phase of the Cold War (1947-60), Portugal became a steadfast, if weak, member of the US-dominated North Atlantic Treaty Organization alliance and, in 1955, with American support, Portugal joined the United Nations (UN). Colonial affairs remained a central concern of the regime. As of 1939, Portugal was the third largest colonial power in the world and possessed territories in tropical Africa (Angola, Mozambique, Guinea-Bissau, and São Tomé and Príncipe Islands) and the remnants of its 16th-century empire in Asia (Goa, Damão, Diu, East Timor, and Macau). Beginning in the early 1950s, following the independence of India in 1947, Portugal resisted Indian pressures to decolonize Portuguese India and used police forces to discourage internal opposition in its Asian and African colonies.
       The later years of the New State (1958-68) witnessed the aging of the increasingly isolated but feared Salazar and new threats both at home and overseas. Although the regime easily overcame the brief oppositionist threat from rival presidential candidate General Humberto Delgado in the spring of 1958, new developments in the African and Asian empires imperiled the authoritarian system. In February 1961, oppositionists hijacked the Portuguese ocean liner Santa Maria and, in following weeks, African insurgents in northern Angola, although they failed to expel the Portuguese, gained worldwide media attention, discredited the New State, and began the 13-year colonial war. After thwarting a dissident military coup against his continued leadership, Salazar and his ruling group mobilized military repression in Angola and attempted to develop the African colonies at a faster pace in order to ensure Portuguese control. Meanwhile, the other European colonial powers (Britain, France, Belgium, and Spain) rapidly granted political independence to their African territories.
       At the time of Salazar's removal from power in September 1968, following a stroke, Portugal's efforts to maintain control over its colonies appeared to be successful. President Americo Tomás appointed Dr. Marcello Caetano as Salazar's successor as prime minister. While maintaining the New State's basic structures, and continuing the regime's essential colonial policy, Caetano attempted wider reforms in colonial administration and some devolution of power from Lisbon, as well as more freedom of expression in Lisbon. Still, a great deal of the budget was devoted to supporting the wars against the insurgencies in Africa. Meanwhile in Asia, Portuguese India had fallen when the Indian army invaded in December 1961. The loss of Goa was a psychological blow to the leadership of the New State, and of the Asian empire only East Timor and Macau remained.
       The Caetano years (1968-74) were but a hiatus between the waning Salazar era and a new regime. There was greater political freedom and rapid economic growth (5-6 percent annually to late 1973), but Caetano's government was unable to reform the old system thoroughly and refused to consider new methods either at home or in the empire. In the end, regime change came from junior officers of the professional military who organized the Armed Forces Movement (MFA) against the Caetano government. It was this group of several hundred officers, mainly in the army and navy, which engineered a largely bloodless coup in Lisbon on 25 April 1974. Their unexpected action brought down the 48-year-old New State and made possible the eventual establishment and consolidation of democratic governance in Portugal, as well as a reorientation of the country away from the Atlantic toward Europe.
       Revolution of Carnations, 1974-76
       Following successful military operations of the Armed Forces Movement against the Caetano government, Portugal experienced what became known as the "Revolution of Carnations." It so happened that during the rainy week of the military golpe, Lisbon flower shops were featuring carnations, and the revolutionaries and their supporters adopted the red carnation as the common symbol of the event, as well as of the new freedom from dictatorship. The MFA, whose leaders at first were mostly little-known majors and captains, proclaimed a three-fold program of change for the new Portugal: democracy; decolonization of the overseas empire, after ending the colonial wars; and developing a backward economy in the spirit of opportunity and equality. During the first 24 months after the coup, there was civil strife, some anarchy, and a power struggle. With the passing of the Estado Novo, public euphoria burst forth as the new provisional military government proclaimed the freedoms of speech, press, and assembly, and abolished censorship, the political police, the Portuguese Legion, Portuguese Youth, and other New State organizations, including the National Union. Scores of political parties were born and joined the senior political party, the Portuguese Community Party (PCP), and the Socialist Party (PS), founded shortly before the coup.
       Portugal's Revolution of Carnations went through several phases. There was an attempt to take control by radical leftists, including the PCP and its allies. This was thwarted by moderate officers in the army, as well as by the efforts of two political parties: the PS and the Social Democrats (PPD, later PSD). The first phase was from April to September 1974. Provisional president General Antonio Spínola, whose 1974 book Portugal and the Future had helped prepare public opinion for the coup, met irresistible leftist pressures. After Spinola's efforts to avoid rapid decolonization of the African empire failed, he resigned in September 1974. During the second phase, from September 1974 to March 1975, radical military officers gained control, but a coup attempt by General Spínola and his supporters in Lisbon in March 1975 failed and Spínola fled to Spain.
       In the third phase of the Revolution, March-November 1975, a strong leftist reaction followed. Farm workers occupied and "nationalized" 1.1 million hectares of farmland in the Alentejo province, and radical military officers in the provisional government ordered the nationalization of Portuguese banks (foreign banks were exempted), utilities, and major industries, or about 60 percent of the economic system. There were power struggles among various political parties — a total of 50 emerged—and in the streets there was civil strife among labor, military, and law enforcement groups. A constituent assembly, elected on 25 April 1975, in Portugal's first free elections since 1926, drafted a democratic constitution. The Council of the Revolution (CR), briefly a revolutionary military watchdog committee, was entrenched as part of the government under the constitution, until a later revision. During the chaotic year of 1975, about 30 persons were killed in political frays while unstable provisional governments came and went. On 25 November 1975, moderate military forces led by Colonel Ramalho Eanes, who later was twice elected president of the republic (1976 and 1981), defeated radical, leftist military groups' revolutionary conspiracies.
       In the meantime, Portugal's scattered overseas empire experienced a precipitous and unprepared decolonization. One by one, the former colonies were granted and accepted independence—Guinea-Bissau (September 1974), Cape Verde Islands (July 1975), and Mozambique (July 1975). Portugal offered to turn over Macau to the People's Republic of China, but the offer was refused then and later negotiations led to the establishment of a formal decolonization or hand-over date of 1999. But in two former colonies, the process of decolonization had tragic results.
       In Angola, decolonization negotiations were greatly complicated by the fact that there were three rival nationalist movements in a struggle for power. The January 1975 Alvor Agreement signed by Portugal and these three parties was not effectively implemented. A bloody civil war broke out in Angola in the spring of 1975 and, when Portuguese armed forces withdrew and declared that Angola was independent on 11 November 1975, the bloodshed only increased. Meanwhile, most of the white Portuguese settlers from Angola and Mozambique fled during the course of 1975. Together with African refugees, more than 600,000 of these retornados ("returned ones") went by ship and air to Portugal and thousands more to Namibia, South Africa, Brazil, Canada, and the United States.
       The second major decolonization disaster was in Portugal's colony of East Timor in the Indonesian archipelago. Portugal's capacity to supervise and control a peaceful transition to independence in this isolated, neglected colony was limited by the strength of giant Indonesia, distance from Lisbon, and Portugal's revolutionary disorder and inability to defend Timor. In early December 1975, before Portugal granted formal independence and as one party, FRETILIN, unilaterally declared East Timor's independence, Indonesia's armed forces invaded, conquered, and annexed East Timor. Indonesian occupation encountered East Timorese resistance, and a heavy loss of life followed. The East Timor question remained a contentious international issue in the UN, as well as in Lisbon and Jakarta, for more than 20 years following Indonesia's invasion and annexation of the former colony of Portugal. Major changes occurred, beginning in 1998, after Indonesia underwent a political revolution and allowed a referendum in East Timor to decide that territory's political future in August 1999. Most East Timorese chose independence, but Indonesian forces resisted that verdict until
       UN intervention in September 1999. Following UN rule for several years, East Timor attained full independence on 20 May 2002.
       Consolidation of Democracy, 1976-2000
       After several free elections and record voter turnouts between 25 April 1975 and June 1976, civil war was averted and Portugal's second democratic republic began to stabilize. The MFA was dissolved, the military were returned to the barracks, and increasingly elected civilians took over the government of the country. The 1976 Constitution was revised several times beginning in 1982 and 1989, in order to reempha-size the principle of free enterprise in the economy while much of the large, nationalized sector was privatized. In June 1976, General Ram-alho Eanes was elected the first constitutional president of the republic (five-year term), and he appointed socialist leader Dr. Mário Soares as prime minister of the first constitutional government.
       From 1976 to 1985, Portugal's new system featured a weak economy and finances, labor unrest, and administrative and political instability. The difficult consolidation of democratic governance was eased in part by the strong currency and gold reserves inherited from the Estado Novo, but Lisbon seemed unable to cope with high unemployment, new debt, the complex impact of the refugees from Africa, world recession, and the agitation of political parties. Four major parties emerged from the maelstrom of 1974-75, except for the Communist Party, all newly founded. They were, from left to right, the Communists (PCP); the Socialists (PS), who managed to dominate governments and the legislature but not win a majority in the Assembly of the Republic; the Social Democrats (PSD); and the Christian Democrats (CDS). During this period, the annual growth rate was low (l-2 percent), and the nationalized sector of the economy stagnated.
       Enhanced economic growth, greater political stability, and more effective central government as of 1985, and especially 1987, were due to several developments. In 1977, Portugal applied for membership in the European Economic Community (EEC), now the European Union (EU) since 1993. In January 1986, with Spain, Portugal was granted membership, and economic and financial progress in the intervening years has been significantly influenced by the comparatively large investment, loans, technology, advice, and other assistance from the EEC. Low unemployment, high annual growth rates (5 percent), and moderate inflation have also been induced by the new political and administrative stability in Lisbon. Led by Prime Minister Cavaco Silva, an economist who was trained abroad, the PSD's strong organization, management, and electoral support since 1985 have assisted in encouraging economic recovery and development. In 1985, the PSD turned the PS out of office and won the general election, although they did not have an absolute majority of assembly seats. In 1986, Mário Soares was elected president of the republic, the first civilian to hold that office since the First Republic. In the elections of 1987 and 1991, however, the PSD was returned to power with clear majorities of over 50 percent of the vote.
       Although the PSD received 50.4 percent of the vote in the 1991 parliamentary elections and held a 42-seat majority in the Assembly of the Republic, the party began to lose public support following media revelations regarding corruption and complaints about Prime Minister Cavaco Silva's perceived arrogant leadership style. President Mário Soares voiced criticism of the PSD's seemingly untouchable majority and described a "tyranny of the majority." Economic growth slowed down. In the parliamentary elections of 1995 and the presidential election of 1996, the PSD's dominance ended for the time being. Prime Minister Antônio Guterres came to office when the PS won the October 1995 elections, and in the subsequent presidential contest, in January 1996, socialist Jorge Sampaio, the former mayor of Lisbon, was elected president of the republic, thus defeating Cavaco Silva's bid. Young and popular, Guterres moved the PS toward the center of the political spectrum. Under Guterres, the PS won the October 1999 parliamentary elections. The PS defeated the PSD but did not manage to win a clear, working majority of seats, and this made the PS dependent upon alliances with smaller parties, including the PCP.
       In the local elections in December 2001, the PSD's criticism of PS's heavy public spending allowed the PSD to take control of the key cities of Lisbon, Oporto, and Coimbra. Guterres resigned, and parliamentary elections were brought forward from 2004 to March 2002. The PSD won a narrow victory with 40 percent of the votes, and Jose Durão Barroso became prime minister. Having failed to win a majority of the seats in parliament forced the PSD to govern in coalition with the right-wing Popular Party (PP) led by Paulo Portas. Durão Barroso set about reducing government spending by cutting the budgets of local authorities, freezing civil service hiring, and reviving the economy by accelerating privatization of state-owned enterprises. These measures provoked a 24-hour strike by public-sector workers. Durão Barroso reacted with vows to press ahead with budget-cutting measures and imposed a wage freeze on all employees earning more than €1,000, which affected more than one-half of Portugal's work force.
       In June 2004, Durão Barroso was invited by Romano Prodi to succeed him as president of the European Commission. Durão Barroso accepted and resigned the prime ministership in July. Pedro Santana Lopes, the leader of the PSD, became prime minister. Already unpopular at the time of Durão Barroso's resignation, the PSD-led government became increasingly unpopular under Santana Lopes. A month-long delay in the start of the school year and confusion over his plan to cut taxes and raise public-sector salaries, eroded confidence even more. By November, Santana Lopes's government was so unpopular that President Jorge Sampaio was obliged to dissolve parliament and hold new elections, two years ahead of schedule.
       Parliamentary elections were held on 20 February 2005. The PS, which had promised the electorate disciplined and transparent governance, educational reform, the alleviation of poverty, and a boost in employment, won 45 percent of the vote and the majority of the seats in parliament. The leader of the PS, José Sôcrates became prime minister on 12 March 2005. In the regularly scheduled presidential elections held on 6 January 2006, the former leader of the PSD and prime minister, Aníbal Cavaco Silva, won a narrow victory and became president on 9 March 2006. With a mass protest, public teachers' strike, and street demonstrations in March 2008, Portugal's media, educational, and social systems experienced more severe pressures. With the spreading global recession beginning in September 2008, Portugal's economic and financial systems became more troubled.
       Owing to its geographic location on the southwestern most edge of continental Europe, Portugal has been historically in but not of Europe. Almost from the beginning of its existence in the 12th century as an independent monarchy, Portugal turned its back on Europe and oriented itself toward the Atlantic Ocean. After carving out a Christian kingdom on the western portion of the Iberian peninsula, Portuguese kings gradually built and maintained a vast seaborne global empire that became central to the way Portugal understood its individuality as a nation-state. While the creation of this empire allows Portugal to claim an unusual number of "firsts" or distinctions in world and Western history, it also retarded Portugal's economic, social, and political development. It can be reasonably argued that the Revolution of 25 April 1974 was the most decisive event in Portugal's long history because it finally ended Portugal's oceanic mission and view of itself as an imperial power. After the 1974 Revolution, Portugal turned away from its global mission and vigorously reoriented itself toward Europe. Contemporary Portugal is now both in and of Europe.
       The turn toward Europe began immediately after 25 April 1974. Portugal granted independence to its African colonies in 1975. It was admitted to the European Council and took the first steps toward accession to the European Economic Community (EEC) in 1976. On 28 March 1977, the Portuguese government officially applied for EEC membership. Because of Portugal's economic and social backwardness, which would require vast sums of EEC money to overcome, negotiations for membership were long and difficult. Finally, a treaty of accession was signed on 12 June 1985. Portugal officially joined the EEC (the European Union [EU] since 1993) on 1 January 1986. Since becoming a full-fledged member of the EU, Portugal has been steadily overcoming the economic and social underdevelopment caused by its imperial past and is becoming more like the rest of Europe.
       Membership in the EU has speeded up the structural transformation of Portugal's economy, which actually began during the Estado Novo. Investments made by the Estado Novo in Portugal's economy began to shift employment out of the agricultural sector, which, in 1950, accounted for 50 percent of Portugal's economically active population. Today, only 10 percent of the economically active population is employed in the agricultural sector (the highest among EU member states); 30 percent in the industrial sector (also the highest among EU member states); and 60 percent in the service sector (the lowest among EU member states). The economically active population numbers about 5,000,000 employed, 56 percent of whom are women. Women workers are the majority of the workforce in the agricultural and service sectors (the highest among the EU member states). The expansion of the service sector has been primarily in health care and education. Portugal has had the lowest unemployment rates among EU member states, with the overall rate never being more than 10 percent of the active population. Since joining the EU, the number of employers increased from 2.6 percent to 5.8 percent of the active population; self-employed from 16 to 19 percent; and employees from 65 to 70 percent. Twenty-six percent of the employers are women. Unemployment tends to hit younger workers in industry and transportation, women employed in domestic service, workers on short-term contracts, and poorly educated workers. Salaried workers earn only 63 percent of the EU average, and hourly workers only one-third to one-half of that earned by their EU counterparts. Despite having had the second highest growth of gross national product (GNP) per inhabitant (after Ireland) among EU member states, the above data suggest that while much has been accomplished in terms of modernizing the Portuguese economy, much remains to be done to bring Portugal's economy up to the level of the "average" EU member state.
       Membership in the EU has also speeded up changes in Portuguese society. Over the last 30 years, coastalization and urbanization have intensified. Fully 50 percent of Portuguese live in the coastal urban conurbations of Lisbon, Oporto, Braga, Aveiro, Coimbra, Viseu, Évora, and Faro. The Portuguese population is one of the oldest among EU member states (17.3 percent are 65 years of age or older) thanks to a considerable increase in life expectancy at birth (77.87 years for the total population, 74.6 years for men, 81.36 years for women) and one of the lowest birthrates (10.59 births/1,000) in Europe. Family size averages 2.8 persons per household, with the strict nuclear family (one or two generations) in which both parents work being typical. Common law marriages, cohabitating couples, and single-parent households are more and more common. The divorce rate has also increased. "Youth Culture" has developed. The young have their own meeting places, leisure-time activities, and nightlife (bars, clubs, and discos).
       All Portuguese citizens, whether they have contributed or not, have a right to an old-age pension, invalidity benefits, widowed persons' pension, as well as payments for disabilities, children, unemployment, and large families. There is a national minimum wage (€385 per month), which is low by EU standards. The rapid aging of Portugal's population has changed the ratio of contributors to pensioners to 1.7, the lowest in the EU. This has created deficits in Portugal's social security fund.
       The adult literacy rate is about 92 percent. Illiteracy is still found among the elderly. Although universal compulsory education up to grade 9 was achieved in 1980, only 21.2 percent of the population aged 25-64 had undergone secondary education, compared to an EU average of 65.7 percent. Portugal's higher education system currently consists of 14 state universities and 14 private universities, 15 state polytechnic institutions, one Catholic university, and one military academy. All in all, Portugal spends a greater percentage of its state budget on education than most EU member states. Despite this high level of expenditure, the troubled Portuguese education system does not perform well. Early leaving and repetition rates are among the highest among EU member states.
       After the Revolution of 25 April 1974, Portugal created a National Health Service, which today consists of 221 hospitals and 512 medical centers employing 33,751 doctors and 41,799 nurses. Like its education system, Portugal's medical system is inefficient. There are long waiting lists for appointments with specialists and for surgical procedures.
       Structural changes in Portugal's economy and society mean that social life in Portugal is not too different from that in other EU member states. A mass consumption society has been created. Televisions, telephones, refrigerators, cars, music equipment, mobile phones, and personal computers are commonplace. Sixty percent of Portuguese households possess at least one automobile, and 65 percent of Portuguese own their own home. Portuguese citizens are more aware of their legal rights than ever before. This has resulted in a trebling of the number of legal proceeding since 1960 and an eight-fold increase in the number of lawyers. In general, Portuguese society has become more permissive and secular; the Catholic Church and the armed forces are much less influential than in the past. Portugal's population is also much more culturally, religiously, and ethnically diverse, a consequence of the coming to Portugal of hundreds of thousands of immigrants, mainly from former African colonies.
       Portuguese are becoming more cosmopolitan and sophisticated through the impact of world media, the Internet, and the World Wide Web. A prime case in point came in the summer and early fall of 1999, with the extraordinary events in East Timor and the massive Portuguese popular responses. An internationally monitored referendum in East Timor, Portugal's former colony in the Indonesian archipelago and under Indonesian occupation from late 1975 to summer 1999, resulted in a vote of 78.5 percent for rejecting integration with Indonesia and for independence. When Indonesian prointegration gangs, aided by the Indonesian military, responded to the referendum with widespread brutality and threatened to reverse the verdict of the referendum, there was a spontaneous popular outpouring of protest in the cities and towns of Portugal. An avalanche of Portuguese e-mail fell on leaders and groups in the UN and in certain countries around the world as Portugal's diplomats, perhaps to compensate for the weak initial response to Indonesian armed aggression in 1975, called for the protection of East Timor as an independent state and for UN intervention to thwart Indonesian action. Using global communications networks, the Portuguese were able to mobilize UN and world public opinion against Indonesian actions and aided the eventual independence of East Timor on 20 May 2002.
       From the Revolution of 25 April 1974 until the 1990s, Portugal had a large number of political parties, one of the largest Communist parties in western Europe, frequent elections, and endemic cabinet instability. Since the 1990s, the number of political parties has been dramatically reduced and cabinet stability increased. Gradually, the Portuguese electorate has concentrated around two larger parties, the right-of-center Social Democrats (PSD) and the left-of-center Socialist (PS). In the 1980s, these two parties together garnered 65 percent of the vote and 70 percent of the seats in parliament. In 2005, these percentages had risen to 74 percent and 85 percent, respectively. In effect, Portugal is currently a two-party dominant system in which the two largest parties — PS and PSD—alternate in and out of power, not unlike the rotation of the two main political parties (the Regenerators and the Historicals) during the last decades (1850s to 1880s) of the liberal constitutional monarchy. As Portugal's democracy has consolidated, turnout rates for the eligible electorate have declined. In the 1970s, turnout was 85 percent. In Portugal's most recent parliamentary election (2005), turnout had fallen to 65 percent of the eligible electorate.
       Portugal has benefited greatly from membership in the EU, and whatever doubts remain about the price paid for membership, no Portuguese government in the near future can afford to sever this connection. The vast majority of Portuguese citizens see membership in the EU as a "good thing" and strongly believe that Portugal has benefited from membership. Only the Communist Party opposed membership because it reduces national sovereignty, serves the interests of capitalists not workers, and suffers from a democratic deficit. Despite the high level of support for the EU, Portuguese voters are increasingly not voting in elections for the European Parliament, however. Turnout for European Parliament elections fell from 40 percent of the eligible electorate in the 1999 elections to 38 percent in the 2004 elections.
       In sum, Portugal's turn toward Europe has done much to overcome its backwardness. However, despite the economic, social, and political progress made since 1986, Portugal has a long way to go before it can claim to be on a par with the level found even in Spain, much less the rest of western Europe. As Portugal struggles to move from underde-velopment, especially in the rural areas away from the coast, it must keep in mind the perils of too rapid modern development, which could damage two of its most precious assets: its scenery and environment. The growth and future prosperity of the economy will depend on the degree to which the government and the private sector will remain stewards of clean air, soil, water, and other finite resources on which the tourism industry depends and on which Portugal's world image as a unique place to visit rests. Currently, Portugal is investing heavily in renewable energy from solar, wind, and wave power in order to account for about 50 percent of its electricity needs by 2010. Portugal opened the world's largest solar power plant and the world's first commercial wave power farm in 2006.
       An American documentary film on Portugal produced in the 1970s described this little country as having "a Past in Search of a Future." In the years after the Revolution of 25 April 1974, it could be said that Portugal is now living in "a Present in Search of a Future." Increasingly, that future lies in Europe as an active and productive member of the EU.

    Historical dictionary of Portugal > Historical Portugal

См. также в других словарях:

  • Five Iron Frenzy — Infobox musical artist | Name = Five Iron Frenzy Img capt = Five Iron Frenzy circa 1998 Landscape = Background = group or band Alias = Five Iron, FIF Origin = Genre = christian punk, ska punk Years active = 1995 2003 Label = Five Minute Walk… …   Wikipedia

  • Master of the Five Magics —   Author(s) Lyndon Hardy …   Wikipedia

  • India — /in dee euh/, n. 1. Hindi, Bharat. a republic in S Asia: a union comprising 25 states and 7 union territories; formerly a British colony; gained independence Aug. 15, 1947; became a republic within the Commonwealth of Nations Jan. 26, 1950.… …   Universalium

  • United Kingdom — a kingdom in NW Europe, consisting of Great Britain and Northern Ireland: formerly comprising Great Britain and Ireland 1801 1922. 58,610,182; 94,242 sq. mi. (244,100 sq. km). Cap.: London. Abbr.: U.K. Official name, United Kingdom of Great… …   Universalium

  • japan — japanner, n. /jeuh pan /, n., adj., v., japanned, japanning. n. 1. any of various hard, durable, black varnishes, originally from Japan, for coating wood, metal, or other surfaces. 2. work varnished and figured in the Japanese manner. 3. Japans,… …   Universalium

  • Japan — /jeuh pan /, n. 1. a constitutional monarchy on a chain of islands off the E coast of Asia: main islands, Hokkaido, Honshu, Kyushu, and Shikoku. 125,716,637; 141,529 sq. mi. (366,560 sq. km). Cap.: Tokyo. Japanese, Nihon, Nippon. 2. Sea of, the… …   Universalium

  • Italy — /it l ee/, n. a republic in S Europe, comprising a peninsula S of the Alps, and Sicily, Sardinia, Elba, and other smaller islands: a kingdom 1870 1946. 57,534,088; 116,294 sq. mi. (301,200 sq. km). Cap.: Rome. Italian, Italia. * * * Italy… …   Universalium

  • Medical school — Med school redirects here. For the experimental drum and bass label, see Hospital Records#Med School. See also: Medical education and List of medical schools Founded in 1765, The Perelman School of Medicine at the University of Pennsylvania… …   Wikipedia

  • Egypt — • Provides information on history, religion, and literature Catholic Encyclopedia. Kevin Knight. 2006. Egypt     Egypt     † …   Catholic encyclopedia

  • education — /ej oo kay sheuhn/, n. 1. the act or process of imparting or acquiring general knowledge, developing the powers of reasoning and judgment, and generally of preparing oneself or others intellectually for mature life. 2. the act or process of… …   Universalium

  • United States — a republic in the N Western Hemisphere comprising 48 conterminous states, the District of Columbia, and Alaska in North America, and Hawaii in the N Pacific. 267,954,767; conterminous United States, 3,022,387 sq. mi. (7,827,982 sq. km); with… …   Universalium

Поделиться ссылкой на выделенное

Прямая ссылка:
… Нажмите правой клавишей мыши и выберите «Копировать ссылку»